Final Submission of Written Assignments

EdPsy 399O - Fall 2001

Kathy Schlappi

Tom Anderson, Instructor

Lesson 1, Question 1
Contracts - Required

1. The reinforcer must follow the response.
2. The reinforcer must follow immediately.
3. The reinforcer must be coupled with the response.

• Maximize reinforcement and minimize punishment
• Move at your own pace
• Constant testing
• Immediate feedback
• Progression based on "mastery"
• Small ("byte-sized") chunks of information
• Successive approximation
  • Present VERY, VERY small chunks of information
  • Go from simple to complex and from part to whole
  • Start with prompts, and withdraw them as soon as possible
  • Go from easy to fine discrimination (http://www.uofs.edu/sheep/PI/FRAMES.HTML)

"There is perhaps nothing more harmful we can do to children than allow them to disrupt or misbehave without showing them we care enough to let them know their behavior is not acceptable." (Canters, 1992, p. 79) Since 1993 I have been teaching in a computer lab setting in a K-3 building. Students have come to me to learn computer and research skills. Classes change every 30 to 45 minutes and I see half of a classroom at a time. Since time is limited and transitions at these grade levels are often not smooth it is essential to have an effective classroom management plan. Most of the misbehavior that I deal with happens during the transition from the classroom to the lab, or the transition from tables to computers. Since I see all of the children in the school deciding on a set of classroom rules together is not feasible. The first few weeks that I see students we do discuss together how the computers should be treated and how we should behave in the lab and coming and going from the lab. I do ask students what should happen if there is a problem. I do my best to make each student feel that they have had input to the Computer Rules and guidelines for behavior in the lab.

I do not like to use the word punishment; I am more comfortable with words like consequences and discipline. To control student actions I have tried to make the consequence a logical connection with the offense. When a student has not finished an assignment I have had them finish it during recess. When a student is misbehaving at the computer I have removed them to a table and had them do print research instead of nonprint research, practice keyboarding at the table with an extra keyboard, or write out their assignment instead using a word processor. There are times when I have isolated a child from a group and used "Time Out". This has been done when their actions were harmful to another student or inappropriate for the group. I have had students call their parents and explain what has happened, this has been done when I have previously talked with the parents and they are in agreement that if a behavior occurs again their child will call. There are some situations where I have sent a child to the principal. These are situations where a child has had a pattern of misbehaviors in the classroom, the lab, the lunchroom, and playground that are not what is the usual norm of misbehavior. Most of the time these methods have been effective. It is important to me that a child understands that it is their behavior that is not acceptable, not them. Children need to understand that they are valued and liked. They also need to understand that are some behaviors that they need to change.

While many of the theorists do not use the word punishment they do use the words consequences and discipline. Included in the glossary on page 281 are the following definitions of consequences:

On page 286 in the glossary is a definition of instructional consequences:

In the commentary, Punishment and Others Uses of Aversive Stimuli, Tom Anderson explains that, "While no one is sure, for practical purposes the aversive and the NOT positive stimulus achieve roughly the same objective, that is, they tend to decrease the likelihood of an action." I have used a combination of classical conditioning and operant conditioning in my computer lab simply because it works. Just because a method works does not mean that it is healthy. Anderson's commentary states, "…the combination of operant and classical conditioning outcomes that is likely to occur and learned states of helplessness when aversive stimuli are used, seems inconsistent with a healthy, positive classroom environment." He sites various classroom outcomes that can occur from using punishment such as learned avoidance actions, the inhibiting of creativity, and trying hard to name a few. Anderson identified only one psychologist who advocated the use of corporal punishment, James Dobson. Dobson did state that "physical punishment takes place in private, and is followed by comfort, consoling and affection." Dobson also believes that physical punishment should cease around age 10.

References cited and used:
Anderson, Tom (2001) Commentary: Punishment and Other Uses of Aversive Stimuli.

Canter, L & M. (1992) Assertive Discipline: Positive Behavior Management for Today's Classroom. Santa Monica, CA: Lee Canter & Associates

Charles, C.M. (2002) Building Classroom Discipline. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Personal Observations:
(1993-present) Observations made as a Learning Center teacher at Dirksen Primary School - Pekin Public Schools District #108, Pekin, IL.

Top

Tools for Teachers is an updated version of two books written by Frederic Jones over ten years ago, Positive Classroom Discipline and Positive Classroom Instruction. A major difference in this book is that descriptions of key aspects of classroom management such as meaning business and Responsibility Training are more thorough and clear. Jones, a trained clinical psychologist, who is married to a teacher and comes from a family of teachers, bases his model of classroom management on data collected from "… hundred of hours in the back of classrooms observing" (Jones, 2000. Pgs. 153-154). Included in this book are real life examples from classrooms and cartoons drawn by his son to emphasize key points. His down to earth writing, which is often humorous, reflects that he does understand what life in the classroom is really like. Tools for Teachers was obviously written for teachers.

Seven of the 25 chapters in Tools for Teachers are devoted to setting limits. Limit Setting is about teachers using body language in a calm and powerful way that says, "I mean business" to students. Limit Setting is not done effectively without practice. Jones notes that strong and confident personality types learn this easier than others and that many "natural teachers" instinctively know and effectively use body language (Jones, 2000). Jones repeatedly gives exercises and emphasizes the importance of practicing. A vital part of Limit Setting technique is that discipline is done through body language with little or no speaking. Since most teachers are not in the habit of managing their classroom with relatively little speaking, body language practice is necessary. Jones offers training opportunities through workshops, a Study Group Activity Guide, and videos. A training workshop schedule can be found on his web site, http://www.fredjones.com/, along with a calendar, "Where's Fred?", that lists the dates and places where he will be speaking. "The Study Group Activity Guide is a free, downloadable document designed for small "Study Groups" of teachers to meet regularly and put the skills detailed in Tools for Teaching into practice" (fredjones.com, 2001). The Video Toolbox compliments the book Tools for Teachers and contains seven, one-hour video tapes demonstrating classroom procedures, an overview, and the modeling of key skills and skill-building exercises.

Jones starts with the premise that "… children do not begin life civilized" (Jones, 2000. Pg. 151). With humor he reminds teachers of the realities of teaching:

• "There are 30 of them and only one of you.
• You are older than they are.
• You tire more easily.
• They send in "fresh troops" every year." (Jones, 2000. Pg. 157)
  

Because of the realities of teaching discipline must be cheap. This means that discipline should not cost teachers significant time away from teaching. Limit Setting is a management procedure that takes the least planning, the least effort, the least time, and often does not involve paperwork.

Discipline management skills are necessary for Limit Setting to work. Discipline management starts when the first student enters the classroom and stops when the last student leaves. Effective discipline management is not successful without effective classroom management in the areas of instruction and motivation (Jones, 2000). Jones maintains that using the following techniques may prevent many behavior problems: proximity, working the crowd, room arrangement, Say, See, and Do Teaching, P-P-L (praise, prompt, and leave), well established procedures and routines, incentives, back-up systems, no means no, and putting discipline before instruction..

Tools for Teaching uses the term meaning business when discussing Limit Setting. Limit Setting involves learning body language that conveys to students that you mean business. It also involves learning how to read the body language of students so that you can determine when they are ready to comply. Listed below are steps and strategies involved in Limit Setting through body language.

1. Looking students back to work. This is done by simply turning and looking at the disruptive student or students.
2. Stay calm through relaxed breathing. Students can sense by your body language and know when you are faking being calm. To prevent "downshifting" in the brain when we are upset by student behavior it is essential to stop and take deep relaxing breaths (Jones, 2000).
3. Slow down. Take time to refocus and center yourself, this will give you more time to relax and breath. Students can tell by how fast we move if we are upset, impatient, or busy. Slowing down sends disruptive students the message that they have interrupted instruction and are now our center of focus.
4. Turn in a regal fashion. To do this slowly straighten up and look toward the disruptive student, next rotate shoulders and waist, point one foot in their direction and then slowly bring the other foot around. As you complete the turn you should be facing the student with both toes pointed toward him. It is important that the turn be a slow full turn.
5. Hands down. When your body is relaxed your hands are down at your side. So that students do not pick up any signals from your hands they should be behind your back or in your pockets. It is important not to put your hands on your hips.
6. Jaw down. Students will know you are tense if your jaw is set or your teeth are clenched. Do not smile, even if a student smiles at you. This gives the message that you want their forgiveness for meaning business. Jones suggests giving students a Queen Victoria look that says, We are not amused (Jones, 2000. Pgs. 190-191).
7. Wait. Waiting is powerful because it tells students that you have as much time as is needed to stop their behavior.
8. Moving In. Moving in, like The Turn, is done slowly and in the following stages.
   · Walk over to a disruptive student.
   · In a flat voice say the student's name.
   · Walk to the edge of the student's desk.
   · Give a visual prompt. For example, if the student needs to get to work simply look down at their paper.
   · Palms. Rest your weight on both palms on the student's desk and lock your elbows. This conveys to the student that time is not an issue, they are.
   · Thank the student. It is important to model common courtesy in the classroom.
9. Camping Out. You can Camp Out in front of a student or behind them. Palms are already down on the desk. Bend one elbow and gently move down so that your elbow is resting on the table. Take two relaxing breaths, keep your mouth shut, and wait.
10. Moving Out. Just like Moving In and The Turn, Moving Out is done slowly and in stages.
    · Stand and wait. Make sure that the student is on task.
    · Walk and buttonhook. Momentarily turn and walk away and start to work the crowd. Before stopping at another desk turn fully pointing your toes toward the disrupting student. When helping the next student buttonhook so that the disrupting student is in your direct line of vision.
11. Camouflage. This technique helps to keep issues between just you and the student instead of going public and possibly embarrassing or backing them into a corner. As you're working the crowd a student who is misbehaving catches your eye; you excuse yourself, stand slowly and turn in a regal fashion. Instead of walking directly to the disruptive student you stop and check on another student; in other words, you continue working the crowd. As you stop to work with other students each time before you leave stop and look directly at the disruptive student. Eventually, work your way over to the disruptive student.

I was not familiar with Fredric Jones's model until this course. After reading his ideas I was anxious to try them. I soon had my chance with a stubborn little kindergarten boy who did not want to do the planned activity. I took a deep breath, dropped my jaw and looked at him. He did everything by the book. He made excuses and blamed everyone he could think of. I just kept looking at him. It was difficult to keep my mouth shut but I was curious to see how long it would take and if I would need to move in. It only took a few minutes before he gave up and started working. I waited to see how serious he was. He kept looking up at me and then back down at his work. After a short while he stopped looking and kept working. I thanked him and went on to another child. This was just too easy and too quick! Later in the day I had the chance to try again with a 2nd grader. This time I had to go so far as to move in and put my palms on the desk. It took longer but once again proved successful. I realize that my teaching situation is not the same as in a classroom. My students are with me for a short time of their day and are anxious to come to the Learning Center; however, I do have students who are disruptive and don't always want to work. I intend to start practicing the techniques that Jones advocates.

References cited and used:
Jones, F. (2000). Tools for Teaching. Santa Cruz, CA: Frederic H. Jones & Associates, Inc.

Websites:
Jones, F. (2001) fredjonescom. Retrieved September 12, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.fredjones.com/

Personal Observations:
(August 2000 through September, 2001) Observations made as a Learning Center teacher at Dirksen Primary School - Pekin Public Schools District #108, Pekin, IL.

Top

Lesson 5, Question 1
Forgetting - Required

We all have our own unique encoding and retrieval processes that we use to help us recall information. "To be able to recall something you must first have paid attention to it, made it meaningful in some way, and stored it in your memory in a retrievable way" (MacDonald, 1993). The modal model of information processing explains how information is received and processed using three memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. After information is perceived and recognized in the sensory memory system it moves to short-term memory where the assignment of meaning occurs before information is passed on to long-term memory (Bruning, 1999). If you are not attending or focusing on a sensory signal it will be lost or discarded (Bruning, 1999; MacDonald, 1993). An example of this is our ability to tune out background noise and conversation at a party while paying attention to the conversation we are in. In 1986, short-term memory was replaced by working memory in the modal model, while metacognition and a loop connecting long-term and sensory memory were added (Bruning, 1999). "Sensory processing is affected by short-term, long-term, and metacognitive processes simultaneously" (Bruning, 1999, pg. 18). Research generated by this model has helped us understand how information is encoded, retrieved, and transferred between memory systems.

Sensory and short-term memory are limited capacity, brief duration memory systems (Bruning, 1999; Goodhead, 1999). Research has proved that everyone has limited processing capacity; simply put, this means our short-term memory is not capable of paying attention for very long (Bruning, 1999). Research has also proved short-term memory is overloaded when asked to remember more than 7 chunks of information at one time (Bruning, 1999; MacDonald, 1993). When we experience "information overload" we suffer "memory overload" and our short-term memory no longer works effectively. If information is not actively processed in short-term memory it will be forgotten (Bruning, 1999; MacDonald, 1993). With many interruptions and much outside stimuli I have learned to rely on post-it notes and scratch paper at school instead of my memory. When setting up wireless printing for 25 workstations in my lab I have to remember the static IP of the print station and what I have named the printer. I can't do this during the day without notes; however, after school when things are quieter I find it easier to rely on my memory. Rehearsal and repetition help to keep information in working memory (Bruning, 1999). If I set up computers after school I am able to repeatedly rehearse memorizing the static IP number and the printer name because I can focus all of my attention on the task at hand. When teaching PowerPoint, word processing, or any computer skills to students they learn better when given time to rehearse the information for several days in a row; automaticity occurs allowing them to use the limited resources of short-term memory more efficiently. To avoid "information overload" I break down what is presented into segments, preventing too much information being presented at one time. If information is not attended to, processed and rehearsed in short-term memory it will be forgotten (Bruning, 1999; Goodhead, 1999; MacDonald, 1993).

Long-term memory has unlimited capacity and holds information indefinitely (Bruning, 1999; Goodhead, 1999). Information stored in long-term memory is not forgotten but it can become lost without frequent and systematic review (Bruning, 1999; MacDonald, 1993). Examples of long-term memory are recognizing our home and family, using a computer mouse, riding a bike, and knowing our phone number. The encoding and retrieval processes used to move information from short-term to long-term memory determine how information is stored and retrieved (Bruning, 1999). Prior knowledge plays a vital role in information processing and memory because what can be learned depends on what is already known (Bruning, 1999). To be learned and remembered information must be understood based on experiences that provide meaning. When I saw the second plane crash into the World Trade Center I immediately knew it was not an accident based on knowledge I had about the odds of two planes crashing in the same way and terrorist attacks. As most Americans I will remember what happened on September 11th because of the images and sounds I would rather forget. Those images and sounds have been rehearsed and proceduralized with the help of the media. I now understand in a new way why my parents cannot forget Pearl Harbor and my eighty-seven year old grandmother has never forgotten The Depression.

References cited and used:
Bruning, R.H., Ronning, R.R., Schraw, G.J. (1999). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Websites:
Goodhead, J. (1999). The Difference Between Short-Term and Long-Term Memory. Retrieved September 10, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.ntu.ac.uk/soc/bscpsych/memory/goodhead.htm

MacDonald, R. (1993). Understanding How You Learn. Retrieved September 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web.
http://www.mohawkc.on.ca/dept/counselling/strat/learning.htm

Personal Observations:
(1955-present) Observations made from my family.

(1993-present) Observations made as a Learning Center teacher at Dirksen Primary School - Pekin Public Schools District #108, Pekin, IL.

Top

Procedural knowledge is "knowing how" to perform certain activities (Bruning, 1999; Jensen, 1997). Learning a skill by doing it repeatedly until is automatic, or a habit, involves procedural knowledge. Using a VCR and remote control, brushing our teeth, and driving a car are examples of activities that we perform without conscious thought. Productions and scripts are concepts used to explain procedural knowledge. Productions are IF/THEN rules that enable us to automatically perform a task. IF rules are a series of criteria used to determine an action or production. For example, IF the pedal of a bike is pushed, THEN the bike will move forward. Conscious thought is often not involved in productions (Bruning, 1999; Sylwester, 1995). After frequent practice, the actions involved in riding a bike are automatic and do not require conscious thought. Scripts help automaticity to occur. "Scripts are schema representations for events" (Bruning, 1999).

Teaching primary students how to use a mouse with a computer involves procedural knowledge. It is important that the students know the difference between a left click and a right click. At the primary level we do not teach the students about the shortcuts available when they right click. They need to know that IF they left click the mouse THEN they will get the result that they want and IF they right click the mouse THEN a menu will come up that they have not learned about. It is easy for students to be confused about left and right clicking at this age. They know that they need to click to get the action they want but they get confused about which side; also, many still don't know left from right. To help students remember to left click, and which side is left, all of the mice in the lab have happy face stickers on the left side.

Students also learn to click-hold-and drag clip art by left clicking and to double click icons to open programs. In addition to using happy face stickers on the left side of the mice we also do 'Mouse Aerobics'. Standing, the students raise the hand they use with the mouse and then practice left-clicking, double clicking, and click-hold-and drag in the air. Each activity is repeated several times in rhythm, sometimes we play music. The purpose of this activity is to practice left clicking a mouse in a fun way that is similar to doing aerobics in P.E. - the kids enjoy it and it helps them learn mouse basics. It also includes movement and actions to help students link with the topic of left clicking (Jensen, 1997).

References cited and used:
Bruning, R.H., Ronning, RR, Schraw, G.J. (1999). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Jensen, E. (1997). Teaching With The Brain In Mind. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Sylwester, R. (1995). A Celebration of Neurons: An Educator's Guide To The Human Brain. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Personal Observations:
(1993 to present) Observations made as a Learning Center teacher at Dirksen Primary School - Pekin Public Schools District
#108, Pekin, IL

Top

"Quick ask Zoe? What stops x-rays? Even dogs can't. Red fish vanish, then grow bigger.
Yaks hear noises under Jack's mattress. I keep commas over long periods. Peanuts!

Lesson 7, Question 1
Advance Organizers

In my reading I found several definitions and uses for advance organizers. The definitions differed but did have some commonality. All definitions indicated that advance organizers are teacher created structures used before new information is presented to help students organize their thoughts and ideas prior to learning new information. These structures may be visual, written, or oral. "In other words, advance organizers are used to connect what is known, to what is unknown" (Jones, 2001). The use of advance organizers were first described by David Ausubel in his subsumption theory (Atherton, 2001; Bruning, 1999; Gagnon, Jr. & Collay, 2001). Differences in the definitions made it difficult to standardize research on their effectiveness (Bruning, 1999). Below are the definitions that I found:

1. "Advance organizers are general overviews of new information provided to learners before they actually are exposed to new information" (Bruning, p.88).
2. "Brief prefatory material written at a high level of abstraction that serves as a framework for materials to be learned" (Bruning, p. 411).
3. "... graphics, called advance organizers, to help students organize information in a predetermined format" (Wolfe, p. 1589-159).
4. "...short sets of verbal or visual information presented prior to learning a larger body of content" (Project Better).
5. "... devices used in the introduction of a topic which enable learners to orient themselves to the whole field, so that they can locate where any particular bit of input fits in (Atherton).
6. "Advance organizers provide the necessary scaffolding for students to either learn new and unfamiliar material (an expository organizer which provides the basic concept at the highest level of generalization) or to integrate new ideas into relatively familiar ideas (a comparative organizer which compares and contrasts old and new ideas). Ausubel contends that these organizing ideas, which may be single concepts or statements of relationship, are themselves important content and should be taught because they serve to organize everything that follows. Advance organizers are based on major concepts, generalizations, principles, and laws of academic disciplines" (Kalmes).
7. "An advance organizer is a cognitive strategy proposed by Ausubel in his Subsumption Theory, which allows the learner to recall and transfer prior knowledge to the new information being presented" (Postrech).
8. Ausubel defined advance organizers as "appropriately relevant and inclusive introductory materials ... introduced in advance of learning ... and presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness" (Bruning, p. 278).

I have successfully used various types of advance organizers without realizing that was what they were called or that there was a theory associated with them. In the 80's the principal that I taught for introduced the faculty to Madeline Hunter and her teaching methods which included the use of "anticipatory sets". Anticipatory sets are similar to advance organizers in that they are an initial teacher created and led activity intended to determine students' prior knowledge. The idea was to set the stage for what would be taught and help students realize that they already knew something about the new material that would be presented. The KWL method of instruction also uses advance organizers in the form of brainstorming the following questions: What do you already know about ____? What do you want to know about _____? What did you learn about ______? In classrooms today PowerPoint presentations and short video clips are often used as advance organizers. The purpose for setting the stage or creating and using advance organizers is to help students link new information with old. Advance organizers are created and used by teachers to help students bridge what they already know with new information.

Two psychological theories that best explain why advance organizers should be effective when learning new information are Bruner's constructivist theory and Anderson's ACT* theory. Constructivism is a theory of instruction which focuses on learners constructing their own knowledge and ACT* is a theory of learning which focuses on memory processes. Both theories are based on building a relationship between what is new and what is already known. Prior knowledge plays a vital role in information processing and memory because what can be learned depends on what is already known (Bruning, 1999). Schema-like constructs form the basis of Bruner's constructivist theory. The idea that procedural knowledge is learned by making inferences from already existing factual knowledge in the ACT* theory of cognition supports the use of advance organizers to help students remember new information (Bruning, 1999).

Since advance organizers are based on the assumption of prior knowledge they would not be effective in cases where a student had minimal or no prior knowledge to build upon. In this case the advance organizer could prove to be frustrating to the student. "... studies indicate that the effectiveness of advance organizers is proportional to the level of unfamiliarity, difficulty, and technicality of the material to be learned" (Project Better). I have been in situations like this where I had nothing upon which I could connect with to help make sense of what I was trying to learn. When this happens it easy to give up because of the feelings of frustration and inadequacy. As educators we need to sense when our students are feeling like this and immediately remedy the situation.

The type of organizer used is also important to its effectiveness. Younger students tend to respond better to visuals than written text. A verbal organizer might be a better choice than a PowerPoint for some lessons or audiences. Advance organizers are powerful teaching tools when used appropriately.

References:
Bruning, R.H., Ronning, RR, Schraw, G.J. (1999). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wolfe, Patricia (2001). Brain Matters: Translating Research into Classroom Practice. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Web:
Atherton, J., Advance organizers, Retrieved November 29, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/teaching/advance_organisers.htm

Gagnon Jr., G. W., Collay, M., Constructivist learning design, Retrieved November 29, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.prainbow.com/cld/cldn.html

Jones, J. (2001). Lesson 7, Question 1, Retrieved October 28, 2001 from the World Wide Web, EdPsy399 Blackboard. http://courseinfo.cet.uiuc.edu/courses/1/EDPSY399OL_FA01/db/_34126_1/edpsy399ol7.htm

Kalmes, M. W., The advance organizer, Retrieved November 29, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.ccaa.edu/~kalmesm/462s01/proc/advorg.htm

Postrech, R., Advance organizers, Retrieved November 29, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://chss2.montclair.edu/sotillos/_meth/00000012.htm

Project Better, Advance organizers, Retrieved October 4, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.mdk12.org/practices/good_instruction/projectbetter/thinkingskills/ts-3-5.html

Personal:
(1983-1987) Observations made as a teacher at Rankin School, District #98, in Pekin, IL.

(1993-present) Observations made as a Learning Center teacher at Dirksen Primary School - Pekin Public Schools, District #108, Pekin, IL

Top

Encoding, the process involved in placing information into long-term memory, has a major impact on the storage and retrieval of information (Bruning, 1999; Sylwester, 1995). "How we process to-be-remembered information makes a difference in how well we remember it""(Bruning, Pg. 78). We keep information in working memory and strengthen connections to long-term memory by the way we rehearse information (Bruning, 1999; Jensen, 1997; Sylwester, 1995). There are two types of rehearsal, maintenance and elaborative. Maintenance rehearsal is simple and is not as effective for long-term recall (Bruning, 1999). Maintenance or rote rehearsal is used when it is necessary to learn information in an exact form or sequence. Conversely, elaborative rehearsal is complex and is appropriate and necessary to use when higher-order thinking is required. "Research suggests that elaborative rehearsal is far superior to maintenance rehearsal for long-term recall but that it tends to use considerably more of a person's cognitive resources than maintenance rehearsal" (Bruning, Pg. 79). During elaborative rehearsal new information is processed in a way that adds both sense and meaning to the information. Elaborative rehearsal is important when associating new learning with prior learning and to detect relationships.

Research indicates that questioning is an effective elaborative rehearsal strategy that is best used to study and learn complex information (Bruning, 1999; Jensen, 1997). Extensive research has been done on the type of questions and the order in which questions are asked (Bruning, 1999). The bottom line is that questioning is a strategy which enhances comprehension and memory retrieval in learners. Each of the following strategies involve questioning:

References cited and used:
Bruning, R.H., Ronning, RR, Schraw, G.J. (1999). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Jensen, E. (1997). Teaching With The Brain In Mind. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Sylwester, R. (1995). A Celebration of Neurons: An Educator's Guide To The Human Brain. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

The Connecting Link, 2000. Handout on elaborative rehearsal strategies. Norcross, GA: The Connecting Link.

Websites:
Hacker, D.J. Metacognition: Definitions and Empirical Foundations, Retrieved October 1, 2001, from the World Wide Web. http://www.psyc.memphis.edu/trg/meta.htm

Personal Observations:
(1968 to 1972) Observations made as an undergraduate student at Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL.

(1987 to 1993) Observations made as a teacher of the gifted for Pekin Public Schools District #108, Pekin, IL.

(1988 to 1991) Observations made as a graduate student at Bradley University, Peoria, IL.

Top

Three reading models most commonly used today are the top down model, the bottom up model, and the interactive model (Bruning, 1999). At two extremes are the bottom up and top down models. Bottom up, or data driven processing emphasizes decoding and word meanings while top down, or schema driven processing, emphasizes prior knowledge and is conceptually driven (Bruning, 1999). The interactive model of comprehension is achieved by the simultaneous blending the elements of both data driven and schema driven processing (Bruning, 1999; Chun, 1997).

Third grade students in my lab were doing print and nonprint research on Christopher Columbus. Their teacher had created a worksheet for the students based on information from three websites he had selected and print research he had gathered. Students were given the option of using the websites, the printed material, or both. I decided to review these web sites and then do an informal survey with the students about the sites and whether they preferred doing print or nonprint research.

The first site that I looked at was A Christopher Columbus Timeline. The first thing that struck me about this page was that it was most definitely a page to use for research. It was rather boring but had all of the facts needed in the form of a timeline. The timeline was divided into the following categories: the early years, the first voyage, the second voyage, the third voyage, and the fourth voyage. There were few links to follow and the only graphics were dividers between the categories. This data driven page was full of text, simple, and to the point. The only schema activated for me was my knowledge of a timeline. The purpose of the page was accomplished but I found myself wanting to move on and check out the links before I read the information. All of the links were similar in format and full of information and text. The only graphics on the links were maps of the voyages of Columbus. Each page was full of relevant facts needed for research on Columbus. I found myself thinking that I would rather print these pages out and read them from a printed page rather than from the screen. It would have been beneficial to have graphics, photographs, video clips, or audio to help students comprehend the important dates listed and activate prior knowledge about an event.

When I opened the next site, The Columbus Fleet, my eye was immediately drawn to the photographs and the words "virtual tour" at the top of the page. The words "virtual tour" led me to believe that this site would give me an online "virtual tour" of the ships in the Columbus fleet. I was disappointed to learn that this site was an advertisement for a "virtual tour" of a museum exhibit that included replicas of the ships that Columbus sailed. There was little information that could be used for research but I enjoyed seeing photographs of the ships and found myself thinking about visiting the replica of the Mayflower. This activated the thoughts and feelings that I had as I went through that small ship and listened to actors tell about the long voyage. I transferred those thoughts to the crews of Columbus and thought about the hardships they faced and their joy at finally discovering a new land. I would not describe this site as being schema driven for most visitors since there were only two photographs. For the most part it was data driven giving relevant facts about the exhibit.

The last site, 1492: An Ongoing Voyage, was an online exhibit of the Library Congress. My eye was immediately drawn to the large title and the picture underneath it. Scrolling down I found a well organized list of links that allowed me to immediately link to the information I needed. I liked the idea that a link to an outline of the site was also provided because of prior knowledge about the advantages of using a 'Table of Contents' or index to get to information quickly. The site was well organized and easy to navigate; however, once again there were few pictures and many words; another data driven page that I would prefer to print out. I also felt that there was too much information on several of the pages. As with the other two sites no features were offered that were not possible with print media.

Though boring, in my opinion, all three sites were excellent sources of information on Christopher Columbus and his voyages. I was curious to find out if the class preferred print research or nonprint research (web sites) for this project. I did an informal survey by simply walking up to groups of students and asking them. Out of eighteen students six preferred nonprint research. When asked why they were using the Internet if they preferred nonprint research they informed me that not all of the information they needed was in the books. I asked them if they would rather read the text on the monitor or have it printed and read it from paper - all eighteen students replied that they would rather read text on paper than on a monitor. This did not surprise me because I feel the same way. A research study conducted at Ohio State University found that "students who read essays on a computer screen found the text harder to understand, less interesting and less persuasive than students who read the same essay on paper" (Grabmeier, 2001). One of the co-authors of the study, P. Karen Murphy, believes that different processing abilities are used when reading computerized text (Grabmeier, 2001). The authors of The Non-Designer's Web Book, caution web page designers that "reading text on a monitor is more tedious than reading text on a page …" (Williams, R., 1998). Web page designers need to remember that there are differences among learners and to present information in multiple modes to accommodate their needs while being careful of combinations of modes (Chun, 1997). Some studies have found that a combination of modes can cause confusion when they are perceived through the same channel (Chun, 1997). For example, if video is accompanied by text the learner is looking a two pieces of information and may have to split attention between the two. It would be better to have video or animation accompanied by audio instead of text that needs to be read (Chun, 1997).

The phonics vs. whole language debate is still alive and well in my school. Our Reading Recovery teacher is on the whole language side and our 1st grade teachers believe that both strategies are necessary. Based on my experience and the research that I have read I agree with my classmates Kim Baker and Kery Strysick, students need more than one strategy to learn how to read and comprehend what they read (Baker, 2001; Strysick, 2001). Students cannot comprehend what they read unless they use both decoding strategies and meaning strategies (Bruning, 1999). Web page designers need to be aware of the abundance of research in the area of reading and implement relevant findings into web design.

References cited and used:
Bruning, R.H., Ronning, RR, Schraw, G.J. (1999). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Williams, R. & Tollett, J. (1998). The Non-Designer's Web Book, Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press.

Websites:
Baker, K., Lesson 8, Question 1. Retrieved October 16, 2001 from the World Wide Web.

Caller-Times Publishing Co., The Columbus Fleet. Retrieved October 17, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.caller.com/attract/colum.htm

Chun, D. M. and Plass, J. L. (1997). Research On Text Comprehension In Multimedia Environments. Retrieved August 24, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://polyglot.cal.msu.edu/llt/vol1num1/chun_plass/default.html

Grabmeier, J., Texts On Computer Screens Harder To Understand, Less Persuasive. Retrieved October 12, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.osu.edu/units/research/archive/comptext.htm

Library of Congress, 1492: An Ongoing Voyage. Retrieved October 17, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/1492.exhibit/Intro.html

Pickering, K., A Christopher Columbus Timeline, Retrieved October 17, 2001 from the World Wide Web. http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/cctl.htm

Strysick, K., Lesson 8, Question 1. Retrieved October 16, 2001 from the Word Wide Web.

Personal Observations:
(1987) Observations made while visiting a replica of the Mayflower in Plymouth, Massachusetts.

(2001) Observations made as a Learning Center teacher at Dirksen Primary School, in Pekin, IL.

Top

Lesson 9, Question 1
Meta - Required

• knowledge of one's knowledge processes, and cognitive and affective states
• the ability to consciously and deliberately monitor and regulate one's knowledge, processes, and cognitive and affective states" (Hacker, 2001).

1. "negotiating the composition of texts
2. collaborating in the construction of text
3. using the conventions of print
4. reading and rereading texts
5. searching, checking and confirming while reading and writing" (Swartz, Klein, & Shook, p. 1)
   

1. Teacher sets conditions and announces goals
2. Encoding and interpreting of cues
3. Clarifying goals
4. Assessing and constructing actions
5. Actions
6. Desired outcomes
7. Match

The Christmas Miracle of Jonathan Toomey, by Susan Wocjciechowski is a touching children's book that illustrates interpersonal and intrapersonal conflict. Intrapersonal conflict "occurs when desired actions or outcomes of an individual are not consistent with those that actually occur" (Anderson, 1999). Simply put this a conflict within the person. Interpersonal conflict is "an expressed struggle between two interdependent persons who perceive incompatible goals, limited resources, and interference from others in achieving their goals. Each person is aware that the other person's actions or likely actions have contributed to the incompatibility" (Anderson, 1999). Interpersonal conflict is between two or more people who have different ideas about how things should go.

Jonathan Toomey, the main character, is a middle aged grouchy and complaining woodcarver who walks hunched over with his head hung down and looks much older than he is. The children of the village he lives in have nicknamed him Mr. Gloomy. The source of his interpersonal conflict is tied to his past. Several years earlier his wife and baby became ill and died within three days of each other. His way of dealing with this loss was to leave town and settle on the edge of a different village. He became a recluse and a complainer who lost himself in his work. Along with being known as Mr. Gloomy he also earned the reputation of being known as the best woodcarver in the village.

His life changes when the Widow McDowell and her seven year old son Thomas move into the village. They come to Mr. Toomey and seek his services in carving a nativity that was lost in their move. The lost nativity was carved by the widow's grandfather and she fondly recalls playing with it as a child. Mr. Toomey agrees to carve the nativity but does not promise that it will be done by Christmas as requested.

Intrapersonal conflict occurs a few days later when the widow and her son show up with some warm cornbread. The widow asks if Thomas can watch him carve the nativity set since his desire is to become a woodcarver when he grows up. Mr. Toomey does not want to be around people, especially in his own home. He grudgingly agrees that Thomas can watch but warns him that he must be quiet and not fidget - things that do not come easily to a seven year old boy. The story continues with several visits to Mr. Toomey by the Widow McDowell and her son Thomas. With each visit comes a gift from the widow. While Thomas patiently watches the carving the widow sits and knits. During the visits Thomas tells the woodcarver how the figures should be carved. He tells him that the sheep need to be happy because they are close to the baby Jesus and that the cow should be proud because Jesus is in his barn. As the visits progress Mr. Toomey and Thomas develop a relationship with Mr. Toomey eventually asking Thomas how a figure should look before he starts to carve it. Enthralled with woodcarving Thomas eventually asks Mr. Toomey if he could teach him how to carve. Begrudgingly Mr. Toomey teaches Thomas how to carve a bird.

On Christmas Eve the widow and Thomas bring two gifts to the woodcarver which he gruffly says he doesn't need. The widow replies that that is the reason they are bringing the gifts. After they leave Mr. Toomey unwraps a red scarf that the widow knitted for him and the bird that he taught Thomas how to carve. Touched by the gifts he wears the red scarf and places the bird on his mantle where he can look at it. He then stays up all night finishing the nativity so that it will be ready for the widow and her son on Christmas day. He has a great deal of trouble (interpersonal conflict) deciding how Mary and baby Jesus should look. He finally goes to a drawer and pulls out a rough woolen shawl, lace handkerchief, a white baby blanket, a pair of little blue socks and a charcoal sketch of a woman sitting in a rocking chair holding a baby. He holds the picture and cries before carving Mary and the baby Jesus from the drawing of his wife and son (conflict resolution). After finishing the nativity set he boxes it up and delivers it to the widow and her son on Christmas morning. That day he, the widow, and Thomas all go to church - he is smiling and laughing (conflict resolution).

I had a difficult time deciding which story to write about. Another story that deals with conflict and conflict resolution is A Cup of Christmas Tea, by Tom Hegg. It's another feel good Christmas story that is more adult oriented than child. After receiving a note from his Great Aunt to stop by for a visit and have a cup of Christmas tea a young man struggles with not wanting to go. Finally, out of guilt he goes and has a wonderful time reliving boyhood memories of past Christmases there. If you want some good holiday reading I recommend both of these.

References:

Anderson, Tom. (1999). A treatise on conflicts in the classroom. Retrieved from the World Wide Web December 7, 2001.
http://courseinfo.cet.uiuc.edu/bin/common/course.pl?course_id=_1519_1&frame=top

Wojciechowski, S. (1995). The Christmas Miracle of Jonathan Toomey, Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press.

Acceleration As An Option For Gifted Education:
Social and Cognitive Effects of the Acceleration of Gifted Students

Introduction

Of the many models and methods offered to aid the educating of the gifted child there is one option that is frequently overlooked by schools and educators. This option is acceleration; also known by such names as grade skipping, grade advancement, rapid advancement, and flexible pacing. At one time acceleration was used extensively as a means of meeting the needs of precocious youth (Howley, 1987), yet it is rarely used public schools today (Cox, Daniel, & Boxton, 1985; Delisle, 1999; Gross, 2000; Renzulli & Richards, 2000; Rogers & Kimpston, 1992).

The concept of acceleration as an option for gifted students needs to be looked at seriously. Research indicates that too many gifted students are bored and disinterested because the schools are not providing for their individual development of ability (Clark & Zimmerman, 1987; Feldhusen, 1989; Feldhusen, Proctor, & Black, 1986; Gross, 2001; McAdamis, 2000; Morrison, 1987; Sisk, 1988; Williams, 1988;White, 1995).

Educators and administrators must become aware that gifted students are children with special needs who have the right to develop to their full potential. Teachers often have wrong perceptions of gifted students who would benefit from some form of acceleration (Howley, 1985; Sharkey, 1987; Sisk, 1988; Winebrenner, 2001).

Acceleration for gifted students is a controversial topic. Why isn't acceleration used more in our public schools? Is the criticism expressed against acceleration by educators justified? Who are the advocates for acceleration and why? What does the research say? The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of acceleration as a legitimate and valuable method for meeting the needs of some academically gifted students.

Acceleration Options

The original purpose of acceleration was to accomplish academic objectives faster (Bickel, 1986). The purpose of acceleration today is to provide a means that will allow a child to develop to his full potential. "Accelerative strategies offer gifted students the opportunity to participate in educational programs suited to their particular needs and interests" (Brody & Benbow, 1987, p. 105). For acceleration to be effective it is important to match the appropriate acceleration option to the student (Feldhusen, 1986; Gross, 2000; Guenther, 1998; Morrison, 1987; Sisk, 1988; Winebrenner, 2001). Following are nine acceleration options:

Examples of Radical Acceleration

In the early 1800's John Stuart Mill was taught by his father, James Mill, until he was fourteen years old. It was "…James Mill's opinion that a close supervision of John Stuart in his own home was both cheaper and of far more value" (Kelly, 1985, p. 87). James Mill believed that he could determine the character and ability of John Stuart by controlling his education. John Stuart Mill's IQ was rated at 190 by Cox in her 1926 study of early mental traits of geniuses (Kelly, 1985). Since he had been taught at home John Stuart Mill was not aware that he was academically ahead of others his age; on the contrary, his father led him to believe that he was backward. His slow social development is attributed to being taught at home for fourteen years (Kelly, 1985).

Mike Grost, who earned a college degree at age twelve and a Ph.D. at age sixteen; and Tony Lai, who earned a college degree at age fourteen, were often misunderstood by their grade school teachers (Sharkey, 1987; Sisk, 1988). Their teachers had wrong perceptions of them and their parents. Mike's teachers viewed him as a prideful, conceited child and his parents as pushy (Sisk, 1988). Tony's first grade teacher ignored his abilities, making first grade a stressful experience for him (Sharkey, 1987).

Gifted students have special needs that are often not being met. Miraca Gross, suggests that radical acceleration is an appropriate placement for exceptionally and profoundly gifted student that may reverse underachievment (Gross, 2000).

Opponents of Acceleration

Preconceived notions are responsible for much of the resistance to acceleration by educators and administrators. Fear of possible negative effects, especially social and emotional, prevents educators from supporting acceleration as an option for meeting the needs of gifted students. In his article, "Synthesis of Research of Gifted Youth", written for Educational Leadership, Feldhusen notes that research concludes that acceleration does not cause social-emotional problems. "A host of studies have confirmed the short and long-term values of all forms of acceleration and the absence of problems resulting from acceleration in the lives of accelerated youth" (Feldhusen, 1989, p. 8). There is a significant amount of positive evidence to show that if done with caution, and following recommended guidelines, acceleration is beneficial and not harmful (Brody & Benbow, 1987; Clark & Zimmerman, 1987; Feldhusen, 1989; Feldhusen, Proctor, & Black, 1986; Gallagher; 1998; Gross, 2000; Howley, 1987; Howley C. & Howley A., 1985; Janos & Robinson, 1985; Morrison, 1987; Reisberg, 1998; Sisk, 1988; Williams, 1988).

Acceleration first acquired a bad name during the depression because it was poorly implemented (Howley, 1987). It was also at this time that Dr. Arnold Lucius Gesell, of the Gesell Institute in New Haven, Connecticut spoke out against acceleration. He is responsible for the concern over the social-emotional development of accelerated students (Howley, 1987).

In 1986 the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (N.C.T.M.) cautioned against acceleration as an only option. N.C.T.M. recommended acceleration only with an enriched environment (Howley, 1987).

Benefits of Acceleration

Acceleration offers more options for meeting the individual needs of the gifted child than any one program can. Acceleration doesn't have to be used alone to be effective. The Advanced Education Program in the Las Cruces Public Schools in New Mexico effectively combines enrichment with acceleration (Morrison, 1987). Frank Williams is a proponent of balancing enrichment and acceleration (Williams, 1988). John Feldhusen and Margaret Kolloff advocate a combination of enrichment and acceleration to meet the needs of the gifted student through the use of a three-stage enrichment model (Feldhusen & Kolloff, 1988).

Proponents for acceleration argue that without acceleration gifted students lose their motivation and become bored, thereby creating the problem of underachievement (Clark & Zimmerman, 1987; Delisle, 1999; Feldhusen, 1989; Feldhusen, Proctor, & Black, 1986; Gross, 2000; Morrison, 1987; Reisberg, 1998; Renzulli & Richards, 2000; Sisk, 1988; White, 1995; Williams, 1988).

Acceleration has positive benefits for the student, the schools, and society. Accelerated students are able to select an educational program that is challenging and meets their needs. Acceleration also alleviates the boredom of what is a slow learning pace in the classroom for these students. Some students are able to learn in as little as three weeks material that takes one year to cover in the classroom. Schools do not need to design a special curriculum for these students, which in turn saves the district money. Society benefits by being provided with productive citizens sooner.

Acceleration can now be provided via the Internet. The Education Program for Gifted Youth (EPGY) at Stanford University, delivers computer-based multimedia distance learning opportunities to accelerate gifted students in grades K-12 in the areas of mathematics, physics, computer programming, and expository writing (Gilbert-Macmillan, 2000).

Summary

A review of the literature indicates that acceleration is beneficial for those gifted students who display advanced achievement, high motivation, and a relative absence of personal or social problems (Brody & Benbow, 1987; Feldhusen, 1989; Gross, 2000; Janos & Robinson, 1985; Sisk, 1988). Much of the literature indicates that without acceleration this type of gifted student is at risk of becoming bored with school and developing into an underachiever (Brody & Benbow, 1987; Delisle, 1999; Feldhusen, 1989; Feldhusen, Proctor, & Black, 1986; Gross, 2000; Reisberg, 1998; Renzulli & Richards, 2000; Sisk, 1988; Williams, 1988).

The research on acceleration has best been summarized by Sisk in the Journal for the Education of the Gifted:

References

Bickel, R. (1986). Students acceleration: redefining an education reform. Spectrum, 4 (2) 14-21.

Brody, L. E., & Benbow, C. P. (1987). Accelerative strategies: how effective are they for the gifted:Gifted Child Quarterly, 31 (3) 105-110.

Clark, G. & Zimmerman, E. (1987). Tending the special spark: accelerated and enriched curricula for
highly talented art student. Roeper Review, 10 (1), 10-17.

Cox, J. & Boston, B. (1985). Educating Able Learners. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Delisle, J. R. (1999). For gifted students, full inclusion is a partial solution. Educational Leadership,
57 (3), 80-83.

Feldhusen, J. F. (1989) Synthesis of research on gifted youth. Educational Leadership, March, 6-11.

Feldhusen, J. F., & Koffoff, M. B. (1988). A three-stage model for gifted education. Gifted Child Today, 11 (1), 14-20.

Feldhusen, J. F., Proctor, T. B., & Black, K. N. (1986). Guidelines for grade advancement of precocious children. Roeper Review, 9 (1), 25-27.

Gallagher, J. I. (1998). Accountability for Gifted Students. Phi Delta Kappan, 79 (10), 739-742.

Gilbert-Macmillan, Kathleen. Computer-based distance learning for gifted students: the EPGY experience. Understanding Our Gifted, 12 (3), 17-20.

Gross, M. U. M. (2000). Exceptionally and profoundly gifted students: an underserved population. Understanding Our Gifted,
12 (2), 3-9.

Guenther, A. (1998). What parents and teachers should know about academic acceleration. Storrs: National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented.

Howley, C. B., & Howley, A. A. (1985). A personal record: is acceleration worth the effort? Roeper Review, 8 (1), 43-45.

Howley, C. B. (1987). It's controversial, but 'acceleration' could bring gifted kids up to full speed. American School Board Journal, 174 (6), 32, 33, 40.

Janos, P. M., & Robinson, N. M. (1985). The performance of students in a program of radical acceleration at the university level. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29 (4), 175-179.

Kelly, M. P. (1985). Unique educational acceleration: the dilemma of John Stuart Mill and contemporary gifted youths. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29 (2), 87-90.

McAdamis, S. (2000). A district-wide plan for acceleration and enrichment. Gifted Child Today, 23 (3), 20-27.

Morrison, B. J. (1987). Acceleration with affect. Gifted Child Today, 10 (3), 22-25.

Plucker, J. A. (1998). Too much too soon? Non-radical advanced grade placement and the self-concept of gifted students. Gifted Education International, 13 (2), 121-135.

Reisberg, L. (1998). Child prodigies find a home on campuses. Chronicle of Higher Education, 45 (17), A35-A36.

Renzulli, J. S. & Richards, S. (2000). Meeting the enrichment needs of middle school students. Principal, 79 (4), 62-63.

Rogers, K. B. & Kimpston, R. D. (1992). Acceleration: what we do vs. what we know. Educational Leadership, 50 (2), 58-61.

Sharkey, O. (1987). Tony Lai, age 14, B.Sc., prodigy. Roeper Review, 10 (2), 94-96.

Sisk, D. A. (1988). The bored and disinterested gifted child: going through school lockstep. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 11 (4), 5-19.

White, L. A. (1995). Acceleration - a viable option for gifted children. Eric NO: ED387992

Williams, F. E. (1988). A magic circle. Gifted Child Today, 11 (1), 2-5.

Winebrenner, S. (2001). Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom: strategies and techniques every teacher can use to meet the academic needs of the gifted and talented. Revised, expanded, updated edition. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing Inc.