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Educational
Psychology 399OL
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List of Discussion Board Essays and
Responses
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Misty Mapes Lesson One: Contracting in High School and Life "Reality exists in the human mind, and nowhere else. Not in the individual mind, which can make mistakes, and in any case soon perishes; only in the mind of the Party, which is collective and immortal. Whatever the Party holds to be truth is truth. It is impossible to see reality except by looking through the eyes of the Party. That is the fact that you have got to relearn, Winston. It needs an act of self-destruction, an effort of the will. You must humble yourself before you can become sane" (O’Brien qtd. in Orwell, 1949, pp.205-06). The “law of effect” explains how reinforcers can determine truths and reality for each individual, thus shaping his mind. The control one has over his pupils’ minds can be dangerous, so the power must be used positively. “You see, this law of effect [led many] of us to conclude that anything (any response) can be learned or unlearned, depending on the placement and type of reinforcer used by the teacher, parent, trainer, or coach!” (Anderson, n.d., par. 17). This concept is used in virtually every facet of growth and learning. Obviously, then, the rewards or punishments that people receive when learning are directly related to their behavior, and, in fact, to their understanding of a subject. When Winston Smith is tortured in Room 101 (in George Owell’s 1984), he actually changes not only his behavior, but his beliefs as well, due to behavior modification techniques, mainly in the form of negative reinforcement. The novel is fiction, but the philosophies uncovered in the book are parallel to the beliefs of its author, an intellectual socialist who expressed his concerns on the dangers of behavior and mind modification. Paradoxically, giving tokens to children for finishing their homework on time or for applying their knowledge that two plus two equals four is another example of how behavior modification works. As a high school English teacher, I usually use “social awards” rather than “material awards” or “tokens” (Mayer, 2003, p. 249). Much like Tonya, I believe that teenagers are “not as encouraged by the token system” as younger children might be (Dieken, 2002, par. 2). At the beginning of the school year, I lay down the “rules,” the most important rule being the display of respect to me and to each other at all times in my classroom. In return, I pledge to show respect to them, to treat them as young adults rather than as children. I make an effort to smile a lot, joke around, tell amusing stories, and make each student feel as if he is very important to me—that whatever he is saying is of high quality and intelligence…or at least that it could be with some hidden direction. The atmosphere of my classroom is generally whatever I make it, and I always try to make it valuable or appropriate for the lesson. Sometimes it is sentimental; sometimes it is sad…but it is never distasteful. Haim Ginott once wrote, “As a teacher I have come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element in the classroom. It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my daily mood that makes the weather . . . .” (qtd. in Charles, 2002, pp. 27-28). And the students add to the mood that I set. They know not to be vulgar or offensive or even immature. They typically do not want to ruin the fun by misbehaving or acting irresponsibly, and they usually have their homework finished because they want to be able to contribute to the group discussions and activities. This “reward” of respect is given in degrees, varying per student per day. Only twice in the past eight years have I resorted to using “aversive” punishment (Anderson, n.d., par.21) (e.g., detentions and “bucket duties”) as a means of behavior modification. In fact, I rarely need to speak sternly to a student for inappropriate behavior, thus taking away the positive reinforcement of my cheerful disposition and display of respect to them. I very seldom offer any extrinsic rewards, but there are some that are written into our school’s student handbook. For instance, any student who has a cumulative semester grade of an A- or better, has no detentions or suspensions, has fewer than five absences (all excused), and has a decent effort grade in his class is exempt from his semester exam. Many students currently earning a B or B+ make a real effort to bring it up to an A-; they do not miss class unnecessarily; and they do not misbehave for fear of receiving a detention or a low effort grade by their teacher(s). I believe that the students’ behavior is positively influenced by this reward. Next year, though, the school is considering a change in that policy. Some teachers and administrators are concerned that this reward of exemption is causing college-bound students to be unprepared for comprehensive exams at the universities. My hypothesis is that fewer students will strive so hard for the A- over the B+ or for four or fewer absences. I doubt that the level of insubordination will increase much, but I would not be surprised to see a few more faces in detention should this change in policy be approved. “Students may come to rely heavily on external rewards as a guide to how they should behave” (Mayer, 2003, p. 252). I am afraid that many students have, unfortunately, come to expect this extrinsic reward in order to perform their best in their courses. Overall, contracting is essential in teaching and learning. Students need to develop “intrinsic or self-motivated methods of behavior control,” and it should be the goal of parents, teachers, administrators, counselors, coaches, and other leaders to encourage students to find that discipline (Mayer, 2003, pp. 252, 256). In fact, teachers have used this concept for a long time and have found that it works effectively if delivered well. For Christians, history is depicted in the Bible, and much of their behavior is based on the rules and regulations laid out in various books, chapters, and verses. Jesus Christ is the savior—do his will and be rewarded with eternal life in heaven; turn away from him and suffer the eternal punishment of hell. See, even God uses the concept of contingency contracting. Resources Anderson, Tom. (n.d.). Commentary. Lesson 1—Behaviorism. Retrieved December 26, 2002, from: http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/content.pl?action=LIST&render_type=DEFAULT&content_id=_94493_1 Charles, C.M. (2002). Building Classroom Discipline (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Dieken, Tonya. (2002, 26 December). Behavioral contracts [Msg. 1]. Message posted to http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/msg_view.pl?pk1=91018&sos_id_pk2=1&context=default&nav=discussion_board Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Orwell, George. (1949). 1984. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. |
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Misty Mapes
According to C.M. Charles in Building Classroom Management, assertive discipline is a system of discipline in classroom instruction that is effective by "attending closely to student needs, formalizing good class rules of behavior, teaching students how to behave properly, regularly giving students positive attention, talking helpfully with students who misbehave, and establishing a sense of mutual trust and respect" (2002, p. 34). This theory of discipline is obviously an extension of Thorndike's law of effect, but does that mean that it must be only a behaviorist theory, or can it be an extension of Mayer's cognitive theory of discipline as well? Thorndike proposes that "learning depends on the effect of each response" (Mayer, 2003, p. 243). If an action creates a pleasant reaction, that action is likely to be repeated given the same situation; likewise, an unpleasant reaction would ensure that the action will not reoccur. This theory, then, promotes the idea that students change their behavior merely because they will receive a positive or negative response, not because they have learned why they receive such a response. Lee and Marlene Canter's theory of assertive discipline is plainly an extension of Thorndike's law of effect. Both theories find positive reactions to be more effective than negative reactions, but they agree that negative consequences are sometimes appropriate. Whereas Thorndike just states this as a truth (Mayer, 2003, p. 243), the Canters expand on that idea to include a "discipline hierarchy," with an order of consequences listed from least imposing to most imposing (Charles, 2002, p. 39). This extension of the law of effect requires teachers to keep a record of instances of each student's misbehavior (Charles, 2002, p. 39) in order to discipline consistently and fairly. The Canters also recommend other semi-specific methods of instruction in their theory of assertive discipline. Because the teacher is in charge of his classroom, he must be assertive, considerate, and consistent in his reactions to behavior (Charles, 2002, p. 41). A good teacher, in Canters' point of view, is one who is "demanding, yet warm in interaction, supportive of the youngsters, and respectful when addressing misbehavior. Assertive teachers listen carefully to what their students have to say, speak respectfully to them, and treat everyone fairly . . ." (McIntyre, 2001, p. 3). Besides their common view on positive discipline over negative discipline, both Thorndike and the Canters agree that an appropriate reaction will directly affect a student's behavior. The behaviorist theory contends that behavior modification is directly related to the "contingency" and "rate of responding" to improper conduct (Mayer, 2003, p. 245). The Canters also believe that teachers should "[r]ecognize and quickly respond to appropriate behavior" (McIntyre, 2001, p. 4); however, their approach to negative behavior is not quite as extreme. Sometimes, with an especially difficult student, taking immediate action is not the best option. A cool-down period for teacher and/or student, along with serious consideration of the circumstances, may be necessary before direct confrontation is made. (Charles, 2002, pp. 45-46). Obviously, the Canters have taken Thorndike's law of effect into their own practice of classroom discipline. Still, they have modified it to fit not necessarily a behaviorist theory solely; they have also apparently considered the effectiveness of Mayer's cognitive theory. Much of Mayer's theory on discipline is parallel to Thorndike's law of effect. For example, they both support positive reinforcement over punishment, allowing still for negative consequences when appropriate (Mayer, 2003, p. 246). But Mayer's cognitive theory differs from Thorndike's behaviorist theory in one very significant way: Mayer believes that students take a more "active" role in their behavior modification, that students interpret the reaction to their behavior to understand what, why, how, if they need to change in their behavior (Mayer, 2003, p. 272). In other words, the cognitive theory requires (duh!) cognition on the students' part. Lee and Marlene Canter also stress the importance of cognition in their discipline theory. For instance, they explain that "[i]t is not enough to just read [a discipline plan] aloud" to students; rather, the teachers should "Explain why the rules are needed, . . . Explain why you have consequences, . . . [and] Check again for understanding" (qtd. in Charles, 2002, p. 40). Their goal, much like Mayer's, is to prepare students to enter society, knowing and understanding society's expectations of them (McIntyre, 2001, p. 2; Charles, 2002, p. 34). So, is Canters' theory of assertive discipline an extension of Mayer's cognitive theory? Mayer's theory is already pretty well defined and developed. Perhaps the Canters have merely borrowed concepts of Mayer's theory in the process of creating their own. They do not seem to put as much emphasis on cognition as Mayer does. It is clear, however, that the two theories are congruent at least. Resources Charles, C.M. (2002). Building Classroom Discipline (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. McIntyre, Tome. (2001, September 2). Assertive discipline.
Retrieved January 3, 2003, from |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Two: A Talking Forum about Assertive Discipline in Personal Life
I couldn't think of a specific example in my personal life of when I was the receiver of Assertive Discipline, so I am writing about a friend of mine and my brother, both who were Army men. Their life in the Army was one big lesson in Assertive Discipline, although it was certainly not what the Canters would consider a healthy learning environment for students due to the sometimes negative atmosphere on an army base. |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Three: Using Punishment in the Classroom "Using aversive stimuli to control the actions of humans is traditional, diverse and controversial, but above all, its use can be effective" (Anderson, n.d., par. 2). Although I prefer to keep my classroom positive at all times, occasionally I am inclined to use punishment as a disciplinary action due to its desired effect or my crabbiness (hopefully the latter is rarely the reason). I am not sure that punishment is ever the only, or ever the most, effective alternative, but it is often convenient, not requiring much creativity or ingenuity. I teach at a great school, and -seriously-I seldom need to resort to punishing students. I have consequences for inappropriate behavior, but I do not see much of it in my classroom. Still, there are times when I choose to use punishment, either by "giving an aversive stimulus" or by "taking away a pleasant stimulus" (Anderson, n.d, pars. 5-6). One example of punishment I threaten to use is taking away points from assignments that are turned in late. If a student needs an extension on a big project, usually all he needs to do is ask for one. I would rather assess a student's work based on what he is capable of doing instead of what he can throw together at last minute, and if an extension will guarantee me that the student's project will be better than it would be without an extension, I will typically grant it. However, if the student turns in an assignment late without approval, he will receive a late grade, that is, a grade that reflects not only the quality of the work but also on the student's lack of responsibility and reliability as well. I do not like taking points away from students, especially when the quality of their work is exceptional, but I cannot think of any alternative that would work as effectively to make sure students turn in their work in a timely fashion. With this policy, students almost never turn in assignments late without my approval. And when they do turn in late work unapproved, they acknowledge that the late grade is justified. Another example of punishment that I sometimes threaten to use is the revocation of Accelerated Reader days. Every Friday is deemed "AR Day" in Mrs. Mapes' English classes, allowing students to read a book of their choice all period that day. However, if the students lose focus of their tasks in class throughout the week, they lose the privilege of reading on Friday; rather, they have to work on other assignments, depending on the extent of their misbehavior. The students appreciate this "day of rest" on Fridays because it offers them a chance to escape the daily grind of traditional learning. Therefore, they are usually determined to stay on task Monday through Thursday. The punishment (or the threat at least) of taking the AR day away is thus effective. I am not sure if other methods of discipline would be more effective, though. I never really liked the idea of giving more or harder homework as a punishment to students, which is basically what I am doing if I take away AR Day and replace it with other assignments. This policy will most likely remain a last resort. My least favorite punishment is referrals. Ooh . . . the word is so ugly! According to our school's student handbook, students must be "written up" if they swear (could that word be more vague?), wear and/or refuse to change inappropriate clothing, speak belligerently to a teacher, deface property that is not their own, etc. Given such a circumstance, the teacher is required to fill out a referral sheet explaining the situation in detail and send the student to the office, whereupon the principal determines the appropriate disciplinary action to take-be it "bucket duty" (serving lunch to students, cleaning tables in the cafeteria, washing dishes, etc.), detention, or suspension. Some could argue that this policy is effective. The students are being reprimanded for poor behavior. And it is convenient for the teachers because we do not have to deal with the disruptive students; we can just send them down the hall. Many teachers also find consistency in this policy-if a student breaks one of the "specific" rules, he is automatically referred to the principal, regardless of his reputation at the school. However, other teachers are not so enthusiastic about this
district-wide policy because they believe the discipline is not consistent.
The rules are not explicit or rigid enough for consistency. For instance,
in one class, the teacher may consider saying God's name in vain as swearing,
sending offenders to the office under the same rule that applies to students
who use "rated-R" words. Or how about "belligerent"
students? What constitutes belligerence? Teachers must individually consider
these concepts and determine whether or not a student is breaking the
rules. So, what happens is that some of these teachers, who disagree with
the policy, begin disciplining on their own, disregarding and therefore
discounting the student handbook. Also not a good idea. Where is the rehabilitation
in that? Should there be rehabilitation or second chances? References Anderson, Tom. (n.d.). Commentary. Lesson 3-Punishment. Retrieved January 10, 2002, from: http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/content.pl?action=LIST&render_type=DEFAULT&content_id=_94497_1 |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Four: The Legitimacy of Preferred Activity Time (PAT) Fred Jones' concept of preferred activity time is intriguing and inspiring. It is, however, somewhat questionable in credibility. Many teachers are enthusiastic about Jones' concept of group rewards-"I tried out my first PAT on Friday. It worked wonderfully!" (Douglas Wolfe, 2002, par. 2)-so it would be insulting and erroneous to dismiss his theory altogether. I must be cautious in my approach to this critique of PAT, because I am somewhat skeptical of clinical psychologists who choose to evaluate classroom management without ever having taught in a classroom themselves. (Please don't psychoanalyze that; I already know I am the ignorant one.) Once I saw how many teachers recognized Jones' theory as legitimate classroom management, I put on my rose-colored glasses and began to investigate the PAT concept in a more positive light-only to discover that I am still torn about my feelings of PAT. Fred Jones (2001) explains that "there are two different types of PAT which deal with two different types of motivation in the classroom"-one for instruction, the other for discipline (par. 2). According to this concept, students are expected to behave a certain way, and if the entire class succeeds, they earn minutes that will be added to a specified, student-chosen activity to be participated in at a later time. The main goal of PAT is to help students become more responsible in both their homework habits and their behavior through a process of "encouragement and incentives" instead of "nagging, threatening, or punishing" (Charles, 2002, p. 58). In and of itself, this idea is great, but some people disagree with the ethics of it. Does the idea of constant rewarding really teach students to take responsibility for themselves? Some say that children need to learn that completing their homework is a personal responsibility that students need to learn in order to succeed later in life, not necessarily just to receive a reward. Krissta Thiel, a straight-A 16-year-old girl, claims that she studies hard not because of rewards but because she "cares about her future." She says, "One day, we will all have to be able to survive on our own, so what are those kids going to do when they don't get rewarded for that? Students should not need bribery to do their homework. They should have enough self-discipline to do it on their own" (qtd. in Kranz, 2000, pars. 44-45). In reality, though, not all students have that self-discipline yet. Should teachers then be responsible for motivating them? Fred Jones believes that "[i]ncentive programs motivate students to start doing the right thing, maintain on-task behavior, and behave properly"; furthermore, incentives should be built for the entire class, "designed to build student cooperation" rather than to motivate only the "achievers" (Allen, 1996, par. 5). Dr. Ruth Peters, a clinical psychologist, also suggests a "system of rewards" for work completed. She says, "I'd rather bribe a kid and jump start the behavior, internal motivation and attitude change than watch my kids fail. What is the alternative? Yelling at them, and having them grow up resentful? Besides, it works" (qtd. in Kranz, 2000, par. 4). Dr. Robert R. Butterworth adds, "If adults don't work for free, why should kids?" (qtd. in Kranz, 2000, par. 16). Still, others believe that the motivation behind such a policy is dangerous. Dr. Janine Bempechat, an assistant professor of education at the Harvard graduate School of Education, argues that such incentives programs encourage children to be "manipulative" and to "do the minimum in order to gain the maximum number of chips [toward a PAT]" (qtd. in Kranz, 2000, par. 7). She suggests that children should be expected to complete work and behave well without such rewards. Instead, perhaps teachers can offer their continual assistance to students and provide the necessary supplies to enhance their learning experiences. Nancy Cedillo, a parent, promotes verbal praise as a reward, recommending"complimenting them lots and lots on the quality of their work . . . . Guide them to realize it's a true accomplishment and something to take pride in . . . With the reward system, they get the message that they're doing it . . . to get this or that. Then when the next assignment or job come[s] up, they'll think, 'What will I get if I do this?' It's the wrong message" (qtd. in Kranz, 2000, pars. 36-37). "Sarah" (2002) in a posting on the Fred Jones Message Board, inquires why teachers do not just build a positive classroom atmosphere in which the students are kept busy-learning and having fun, while still "master[ing] all of your instructional objectives" (par.2). Fairness is another issue of PAT. Fred Jones relies on the importance
of each student holding stock in earning the points for the entire class.
If a single student misbehaves, he/she can prevent the class from earning
all of the PAT points. Therefore, the entire group is "rewarded together
and punished together regardless of who might transgress" (Charles,
2002, p. 60). The benefit of such a policy is that there is a "group
concern," motivating the students to keep each other as well as themselves
on task in the classroom. If one student misbehaves, the hope is that
the rest of the class will discourage the misbehavior (Charles, 2002,
p. 60). Once again, this theory is nice for the teachers, who can subsequently
depend on students to help them keep disciplinary problems at bay, but
is it fair to the students? Some students may find this policy unfair
because it places them in a position to be a disciplinarian, which they
see as the teacher's or administrator's role. They may feel uncomfortable
criticizing or scorning a fellow classmate even though they are disappointed
with his/her behavior. In addition, they will most likely think it unfair
that their reward(s) will be diminished due to the misbehavior of just
one student. Overall, I guess that my opinion of PAT is that it is a good incentive program to be used in appropriate situations and classrooms-that is, classrooms with many unruly students or students who lack focus. But I do not think that it is necessary, or even practical, in every classroom with every teacher. Truly good teachers are those who observe, practice, and evaluate different methods of discipline and find which style works best for each individual class and each individual situation. Incentives such as PAT are not always best-"The people who achieve true success in their careers and in life are the ones who are motivated from within" (Krista Thiel qtd. in Kranz, 2000, par. 46). References Allen, Thomas H. (n.d.) The Canter and Jones models: The Fred Jones model. Retrieved January 10, 2003, from: http://www.humboldt.edu/~tha1/canter.html Charles, C.M. (2002). Building Classroom Discipline (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Jones, Fred. (2001, October 22). PATs and motivation [Msg2]. Message
posted to Ken. (2002, December 15). PAT for occasional classes [Msg3]. Message
posted to Kranz, Cindy. (200, February 4). Should you bribe your kids to do homework? The Cincinnati enquirer. Retrieved January 22, 2003, from http://enquirer.com/editions/2000/02/04/loc_should_you_bribe.html Sarah. (2002, November 7). PAT ideas for end of the day [Msg2]. Message
posted to Wolfe, Douglas. (2002, March 24). First PAT idea [Msg1]. Message posted
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Misty Mapes Lesson Four: A Talking Forum about Teaching Method Metaphors
Although I like the "orchestra conductor" metaphor, it doesn't really fit my teaching style well. I'm not fast enough on my feet (or rather brain) to use that method effectively. A metaphor that does describe my teaching style, though, is the mockingbird. I take ideas from others and use them myself--much like the mockingbird. Plus, I may try to "live up to" the standards of the methods I "borrow," but I usually have to modify the style to fit my abilities and classroom situations. I'm not very creative to come up with my own teaching theories, but I'm pretty good at using the theories of other teachers and psychologists and analyzing them in my classes. I can find out through trial and error, then, what works best with my students, so I try different techniques and use the ones that work best...much like the mockingbird sings other birds' songs that fit its capabilities (and perhaps preferences) best. |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Five: Fifteen Wonderments
References Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Six: Procedural Knowledge in English Composition One item of instruction that requires "procedural knowledge" (Tom Anderson, n.d., par. 11) in English composition is the art of writing formal essays (quite an oxymoron, eh? art and formal essay writing J). This unit of writing is broken up throughout the year, although I hit it pretty hard the first few weeks of school. I begin by teaching (or rather, reviewing) how to write independent formal paragraphs, which does not take long because the students have been writing them since third grade. This is the "primitive stage" (Tom Anderson, n.d., par. 13) of their writing experience at high-school level. When they have shown self-sufficiency in single-paragraph rhetoric, we move on to multiple-paragraph expository essays, thus incorporating their knowledge of how to write a one-paragraph essay with new knowledge of how to expand that paragraph into three or more paragraphs. Thus, we have entered the "associative stage" of writing (Tom Anderson, n.d., par. 14). I consistently (and seemingly constantly) remind them of the importance of using correct grammar, and I teach them how to use external resources to improve their writing skills. This process is slow, as "students should gradually acquire the skills required to deal with this complexity rather than having to acquire them all at once" (John Anderson, 1983, par. 5). But by the end of the first semester, the students can whip up an essay in no time, including transitions and all necessary content in a well-organized format. They have mastered the "art" of writing the essay (albeit, usually pretty generic and predictable due to the routine of it), refining their skills in the "autonomous stage" (Tom Anderson, n.d., par. 15). One must be aware, though, that this process takes a long time. Throughout the first couple of weeks, I have to explain the "IF-THEN bundles" (Tom Anderson, n.d., par. 12) to the students (but of course I don't call it that…in fact, I've just heard of that concept myself). For instance, I have to explain that it is essential for the topic sentence to be placed (almost always) first in a paragraph in order for the support to make sense. IF the topic sentence is either out of place or nonexistent, THEN the information in the paragraph is not really proving anything significant. IF the paragraphs are well organized (topic sentence followed by specific support and elaboration followed by conclusion sentence), THEN the paper is easier to write and to read, because a logical order is followed and digression is more easily avoidable. Another example of IF-THEN bundles emerges with support. IF specific support is given, THEN it must be explained. IF it is not explained, THEN readers may have difficulty understanding how the specific support correlates to the topic sentence, or the thesis. Once the students understand and practice these IF-THEN bundles, they can master the rhetoric of expository essays. However, in the late fall semester or early spring semester, the students begin learning a new type of writing: narrative. Narrative essays are much like short stories. They are organized differently than the expository essays, creating a whole new set of "competing IF-THEN bundles" (Tom Anderson, n.d., Procedural knowledge, lesson 6). For instance, in expository writing, no first person is allowed, but in narrative writing, first person may be necessary, (e.g., the theme may be "Tell about your most embarrassing moment"). Also, the organization of paragraphs change from theme-based to chronology-based, and the length of the paragraphs vary more in narrative writing than they do in expository writing. Often, the students are really confused about the narrative writing because they have become accustomed to writing in a more structured manner. Besides the narrative essays' content being organized differently, the appearance of the essay is more creative as well, which can completely boggle students' minds. All expository essays are written and typed in MLA format with very strict guidelines. Sometimes, though, teachers give students creative license to design their narrative essays in a more appealing format, such as inserting images into the text; changing the font size, color, and style; and creating a dynamic cover page. Unfortunately, though, the students are so familiar with MLA formatting, they lack the creative ingenuity that teachers desire in their narrative works. Therefore, IF the students write narrative essays, THEN they must (typically) write in chronological order and use an alternate format (one other than MLA style). Writing essays is a work in progress. Every year, the students improve their writing skills due to "IF-THEN" strategies, and by their senior year, we are proud to send them off to future prospects. But the journey to such success is long and challenging with some paradoxical "IF-THEN" obstacles. References Anderson, John R. (1983). Procedural learning. The Architecture of Cognition. n.c.: Cambridge. Retrieved February 3, 2003, from: http://www.corpus-delicti.com/eco/references/anderson_procedural.html Anderson, Tom. (n.d.). Commentary. Lesson 6-Memory Continued. Retrieved December 20, 2002, from: http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/content.pl?action=LIST&render_type=DEFAULT&content_id=_94506_1 Anderson, Tom. (n.d.). Procedural knowledge. Discussion board. Retrieved February 3, 2003, from: http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/forum_list.pl?course_id=_2590_1&nav=discussion_board |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Seven: Building Concrete Lessons with Computers Richard Mayer, in Learning for Instruction, ascertains that "concretizing an abstract concept or procedure can help students understand and learn in ways that promote transfer" (2003, p. 287). In other words, if a student can visualize and/or manipulate representation of a concept, s/he is more likely to comprehend its purpose and carry that information over into other similar areas of logic. A computer can be a very effective tool in creating these "concrete manipulatives" (Mayer, 2003, p. 287). Using modern technology, students can view realistic simulations of events that they would more than likely never have the opportunity to see otherwise. For instance, in Science or Astronomy, students can learn about theories behind gamma ray bursts while watching an animated simulation of the explosion (Cho, 1999). This experience, although only a re-creation, or model, of the true event, is educational for the students. Even more important than just viewing a model, though, is building one. A young lady recently told me about a computer-aided draft class at her school in which students learn how to design their dream home. Then, with the help of the course software, they can actually see their home as they "built" it-flaws and all, thus allowing them to revise the necessary specific areas that require attention. I am not sure that this software really exists (I have yet to see it personally), but the idea of it is great. It can "help the students learn how to relate the problem to a concrete situation by letting them use a computer program… designed to allow learners to animate the problem" (Mayer, 2003, p. 286). The students' level of activity is also important in the learning process. Computers can provide excellent occasion to practice drills and demonstrate comprehension through interactive games and quizzes. Furthermore, many of these interactive programs offer immediate feedback to the students; some even provide explanations for incorrect responses. In English, for example, I often teach my students about different topics of grammar and then direct them to the computer labs to practice drills from Capital Community College's Guide to Grammar (Darling, 2003). Or sometimes we participate in online games, which provide more creative tests of our conventional strengths. Quia is a site that provides a plethora of games and activities to improve spelling, enhance vocabulary, learn grammar-in the form of Matching, Concentration, Hangman, Jeopardy, and others (Quia Corporation, 2003). These sites allow students to test their knowledge in grammar and mechanics, involving them actively in the learning process. The best way to keep students interested in the subject matter while using the computers is to make the subject matter familiar to them. Students become tired of constantly seeing numbers and symbols, lines and angles, tables and graphs. Perhaps a way to spice up their learning experience would be to incorporate objects and concepts that they are interested in. Mayer demonstrates this theory with his "bunny simulation" (2003, p. 285). The bunny, which aids in the instruction of the math, also moves around-hopping from square to square, number to number-providing an entertaining visual aide for young children. At high-school level, a math teacher may incorporate other, more mature objects and concepts. For instance, the NCES classroom offers a lesson on probability and graphing using a pair of virtual dice and allowing the students to "roll" a specified number of times. Afterward, the computer shows the results in the form of graphs and diagrams. It also has a link to further explanations of probability and graphing (NCES, n.d.). This site sparks interest in the students because they can now relate to the material-the dice are a familiar object to them. An even better program would be one in which the students could create the intended graphs and then see if their graphs were accurate: "In computer-based microworlds, the student is able to relate general principles to more familiar objects by manipulating simulated objects on the computer screen" (Mayer, 2003, p. 287). For the keyboarding class at Teutopolis High School, the students test their typing speed by playing a game in which they zap little space creatures bearing a certain letter by hitting that letter on the keyboard as quickly as they can. The students' interest in the imagery of the game creates the incentive or desire to play and, in the process, to increase their typing accuracy and speed. The computer is not just beneficial, but almost essential, in the learning process. Some teachers require the use of computers often, even daily, to engage students in learning. Almost every project I assign requires the use of a computer, whether it is used for research, independent or group study of grammar and mechanics, or even appealing design. Students of this time are familiar with many different genres of technology, so that in itself promotes the concept of computers as meaningful learning tools. References Cho, H. Adrian. (1999). Twinkle, twinkle, collapsing star. Science notes. Retrieved February 6, 2003, from: http://scicom.ucsc.edu/SciNotes/9901/star/star.htm Darling, Charles. (2003). Interactive quizzes. Guide to grammar and writing. Capital Community College, Hartford. Retrieved February 6, 2003, from: http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/quiz_list.htm Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Classroom. (n.d.). What are your chances? Retrieved February 6, 2003, from: http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/probability/dice_handler.asp Quia Corporation. (2003). English: Top 20 activities. Retrieved February 6, 2003, from: http://www.quia.com/dir/eng/ |
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Misty Mapes Lesson 7: Mnemonic Strategies Mnemonic strategies have been practiced for the past 2,500 years (F.A Yates, 1966, in Mayer, 2003, p. 365); there is no doubt that these strategies work at some level. The question is, how useful and effective are they in the classroom? Is there a more successful method? Studies have proven over time that the use of mnemonics-i.e., "methods devices, or . . . mental tricks for improving memory" (Mirick, n.d., par.1)-is highly effective, not only in memory recall, but in transfer to higher-level thinking skills as well. In 2000, Jones, Levin, Levin, and Beitzel conducted an experiment that concluded with positive results: the students who used the "keyword method" to prepare for a vocabulary test scored significantly higher than those who studied using the "conventional strategy" on both the basic definitions part of the test and on the "comprehension items that were unrelated to the vocabulary words" (Mayer, 2003, p. 370). Thus, they affirmed that students who succeed using mnemonics "are also more likely to show evidence of understanding, as measured by transfer tests" (Mayer, 2003, p. 370). Margo A. Mastropieri and Thomas E. Scruggs, both professors of special education at Purdue University, discovered another level of benefits of mnemonics-that they can be used to aide in the learning and memory of students with learning disabilities (1998, pars. 1, 66). In one incident, a student with a mild mental handicap still recalled specific information she had learned a year prior using keyword mnemonic strategy without having reviewed or rehearsed with any teacher since that time (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998, pars. 2-6). It is hard to argue against that degree of success. After having read all these convincing essays and chapters on the effectiveness of mnemonics, I wish I could say I teach the concept and construction of mnemonics in my classroom. Unfortunately, I have not practiced this type of instruction . . .at least not in a routine or formal way. Sometimes, though, before the students take a vocabulary test, we use word associations to help them remember the definitions. And we occasionally create posters to visualize concepts, especially when discussing symbolism-relating the abstract to familiar objects. Still, I need to do more. My eyes have been opened to the world of mnemonics, and I would like to try it out in my classroom in a more organized way. Currently, my students are required to complete a very regimented vocabulary assignment for each unit, writing for each term its part of speech (as used in the text), an educated guess of its definition, the dictionary definition, and an original sentence containing the term. I was actually pretty proud of my expectations, but now I wonder if my method-in and of itself-is really effective to promote long-term retention of those terms. Perhaps it would be more effective to break up the terms and have the students (probably in small groups) create fun word associations like Mayer uses with "purse" and "persuade" (from Levin, et. al., 1982, in Mayer, 2003, figure 11-3, p. 368). Computers could be a great tool in this type of project. The Internet offers a plethora of sites with theories, expositories, and examples of mnemonics. Other software-word processing, drawing, etc.-can be useful for creating visual word associations through keywords, pegwords, and letter strategies (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998). From my younger school days, I can still remember some mnemonics. For instance, I remember the colors of the rainbow in order because of our good friend, Roy G. Biv, and I will never forget the notes on a music scale: FACE, "Every Good Boy/Bird Does Fine/Fly," and "All Cars/Cows Eat Gas/Grass." Plus, I learned in driver education to park "up, up, and away" from the curb when parking uphill. My husband learned not HOMES for the finger lakes, but rather "She Made Henry Eat Onions." And in his college weather course, he learned that "fish scales and mare's tails bring about ship sails," describing the appearance of the clouds on a fair day with a warm breeze. Even as an adult I create mnemonics to help me remember important details. What is on my grocery list? Oh, yeah-c-bombs (cheese, bread, onions, milk, bagels, and sugar). What is the first name of the committee chairperson again? Well, she looks like a librarian. Oh, yeah-her name is Libby. I do not have a great memory bank, but I would have even less of one if it were not for mnemonics. It is amazing that I had not considered using mnemonics in my classroom sooner. References Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Mastropieri, Margo A., and Scruggs, Thomas E. (1998). Enhancing school success with mnemonicstrategies. LD Online Newsletter. Retrieved February 4, 2003, from: http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/teaching_techniques/mnemonic_strategies.html Mirick, Susie. (n.d.). Improving your memory skills (mnemonics). College of William and Mary.Retrieved February 4, 2003, from: http://www.wm.edu/OSA/dostud/moresski/memory.htm
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Misty Mapes Lesson Eight: Reading from Computers: Phonics vs. Whole Language Learning “Deciding which method is best for teaching beginning reading has become ‘the most politicized topic in the field of education’” (M.J. Adams, 1990, qtd. in Mayer, 2003, p. 45). The effectiveness of teaching through phonics verses whole-language learning has been an ongoing debate since the mid-nineteenth century (Mayer, 2003, pp. 44-45). Both types of instruction provide students with reading skills, but which one provides the students with the best progressive, long-term skills for reading and writing? Many psychologists and teachers argue that a balance of instruction is necessary for students to develop skills in decoding and comprehension: “Balanced instruction combines the best elements from phonics instruction and the whole-language approach” (Diegmueller, 1996, par. 6). However, is it possible that learning to read through the use of computers requires a different instructional method? Some recent studies have suggested that although phonics and whole-language learning both contribute significantly to learning how to read from textbooks and printed material, learning from computers creates a new environment and, therefore, requires a more contextual learning style. Thus, the “balanced instruction” that Diegmueller (1996) encourages for reading really leans more toward the whole-language learning approach for students learning by computers. One relevant study involved 131 undergraduate students who read an article that appeared in Time magazine. Some of the students read the article from the printed magazine; the others read the article after it had been scanned into a computer. The students who read the text from the computer screen reported that the article was “more difficult to understand” than those who read the article off-line (Grabmeier, 2000, par.12). In addition, the “screen readers” found the article less persuasive and less credible than did the other students (Gabmeier, 2000, par. 16). Why was there a discrepancy between the two groups of students? Why were the students who read from the computer screens “unable to transfer [strategies about how to remember and comprehend printed texts] to computerized texts”? (Gabmeier, 2000, par. 14). Perhaps the students reading from the computer were not using a whole-language approach. Some questions arise when one considers the obstacles the computer apparently created for those students. Were the scanned versions blurry or marred, making the material more difficult to read? Was the font too small to be read easily? Did the students have to scroll horizontally to read each line of the text? Did they have to scroll to the bottom of a text column and then scroll back up to the top of the next column, creating a reading challenge? Did the location of the screen somehow cause problems with eye fixations? Was the picture that accompanied the article too bright or in some other way more distracting than the printed picture? Or could it be that the students were simply unaccustomed to reading text from a computer? Perhaps reading from a computer screen is just different than reading printed text. According to John E. McEneany (2000), a student learns by “focusing on both the text’s content and on the processes students apply as they work to acquire, organize, and integrate that content” (par. 1). When students read from a computer, there are typical distractions that may cause their minds to wander, thus disallowing them to give their full attention to the text. Navigation tools, icons, various background and text colors, and screen distortion can all create diversions for students, causing difficulty for them to focus on the content of the text. With whole-language learning, students are encouraged to not only read the text on the computer, but to become familiar with the computer environment as well. They need to learn about the tools, play with the icons, view the pictures, adjust to the background and text colors, and scroll through the text to see its length and content at a glance. THEN, they can read the text… only after feeling comfortable with the settings. Students who use computers to learn how to read may first need “computer literacy,” or awareness of computers and how they work (Simic, n.d., par. 1). Once students acquire this familiarity with computers, they can use them more effectively as a learning tool. Computers tend to offer more dynamic supplementary aids than textbooks and flashcards, providing sound, pictures, animation, and video, which, in addition to the text, “have played an important role in vocabulary acquisition and in overall text comprehension,” and are “unquestioned components of instructional materials for language learning” (Chun & Plass, 1997, p. 60). Therefore, computers can be a great learning tool for students learning to read—provided that students can “work with phonics and structural analysis” as well as with words and phrases as “they are offered within a contextual framework” that creates a familiarity between the learner and the text (Simic, n.d., par. 7). In the end, it is pretty obvious that both phonics and whole-language learning have “a different but potentially complementary role to play in the effective teaching of reading” (Cromwell, 1997, par. 5). But whole-language learning does seem to have an edge on phonics when students are learning to read from computers. Students can learn to decode words using appropriate software, but can they easily comprehend what they are reading if they are too busy trying to adjust to the “virtual” material context? Resources Chun, Dorothy M., and Plass, Jan L. (1997, July). Research on text comprehension in multimedia environments. Language learning & technology. vol. 1, no. 1. pp. 60-81. Cromwell, Sharon. (1997). Whole language and phonics: Can they work together? Education world. Retrieved February 13, 2003, from http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr029.shtml Diegmueller, Karen. (1996, March 20). The best of both worlds. Education week on the web. Retrieved February 13, 2003, from http://www.edweek.org/ew/vol-15/26read.h15 Grabmeier, Jeff. (2000). Texts on computer screens harder to understand, less persuasive. Ohio state research. Retrieved February 13, 2003, from http://www.osu.edu/units/research/archive/comptext.htm Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. McEneany, John E. (2000). Reading on the web: A content literacy perspective. Reading online. Retrieved February 13, 2003, from http://www.readingonline.org/articles/mceneaney/index.html Simic, Marjorie R. (n.d.). Guidelines for computer-assisted reading instruction. Kidsource online. Retrieved February 13, 2003, from http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/guidelines.computers.html |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Eight: Analysis of the Structure of two Internet Sites that Teach How to Find Reliable Resources Online Is the Internet a good instrument for research? The answer to that question is more complex than just yes or no. The Internet has a plethora of information about virtually any subject; some of the information is credible, and some is not. How can one determine between a good source and a bad source in the online world? Two Internet sites that profess to educate learners how to find reliable content online are Robert Harris' "Evaluating Internet Research Sources" (1997) and John R. Henderson's "A Guide to Critical Thinking About What You See on the Web" (2002). Although both of these sites are maintained by qualified professionals and contain similar relevant information, Henderson's site offers "instructional techniques that can make [its] prose more understandable" (Mayer, 2003, p. 327). One organizational technique that gives Henderson's site an edge over Harris' is Henderson's use of questioning. Henderson (2002) opens his expository with the question "[I]s the Web a good research tool?" Although a clear, obvious subjective (open-ended) question might be more effective, this question does cause the reader to pause a moment to consider how the Internet can be used for research, thus exhibiting qualities of an "elaborative interrogation" (Mayer, 2002, p. 337). In addition, this site offers follow-up questions after each topic of consideration. These questions focus on what researchers should be asking themselves at the sites they find-questions such as "What gives [the site's authors] their authority or expertise to write?" and "What is the purpose of the site?" (Henderson, 2002). Although Harris (1997) does not offer any pre-questioning strategies, he does sporadically include some questions throughout his site, such as "Do you want facts, opinions, reasoned arguments, …or descriptions?" and "Why should I believe it?" The questions posed in Harris' expository are legitimate, but due to their awkward placement within the essay, the reader is not likely to remember them or to realize their significance. Henderson (2002) also includes a quiz and an assignment a the end of his expository for learners to test their knowledge and researching skills based on what they learned from his site. Harris offers no follow-up questions at all. Another technique that Henderson uses in his site more effectively than does Harris is "signaling," or placing "noncontent words in a passage that serve to emphasize the conceptual structure or organization of the passage" (Mayer, 2002, p. 341). Both sites use titles, headings, and even subheadings ("typographical cues"-Mayer, 2002, p. 341) in large, bold-face font, but Henderson's are more reader-friendly. He lists only the subtitles-without any subsequent content, but with links to the corresponding prose elaboration. And each subtitle is linked to a separate page (with individual page update information even), so the reader is not overwhelmed with seemingly endless content and scrolling. Conversely, Harris (1997) has all of his content on one page, which, if printed, is eleven pages long. Henderson offers more information and examples than Harris (1997), but Henderson's site's main page is only two printed pages with the option to read more information through provided links. Harris' site is not altogether unstructured, though. Both Harris' and Henderson's sites use "relevance indicators" (Mayer, 2003, p. 341), such as "Let me repeat" (Henderson, 2002) and "An important idea connected with timeliness is…" (Harris, 1997). Both sites also use "enumeration devices" in the form of lists; "function indicators" such as first and therefore; and "repetition," especially in their summaries (Mayer, 2003, p. 341). Still, Henderson's site helps learners build, overall, a better "mental outline of the text" (Mayer, 2002, p. 342) due to its more obvious structure. The primary technique that gives Henderson's site an advantage over Harris' is its use of "advance organizers" (Mayer, 2003 p. 350). Harris (1997) offers no diagrams or models to help illustrate his main points; Henderson (2002), on the other hand, offers several. For instance, in his quiz and his assignment, Henderson gives examples of reliable sites and unreliable sites, and he points out these differences. On the "Look at details" page, he advises readers to be wary of sites with unnecessary distractions such as graphics, and he includes an animation on that page to prove his point. The readers want to watch the bug crawl across the screen rather than focus on the relevant material. Both sites (Henderson's "A Guide to Critical Thinking About What You See on the Web" and Harris' "Evaluating Internet Research Sources") are reliable sources; both offer credible and helpful information regarding Internet research tips. And they both exemplify the same qualities that they claim are necessary for a site to be reliable. However, Henderson's site is more appealing, comprehensive, and dynamic. The organization of his site offers more promise for my high school students (some of whom are not strong readers anyway) to comprehend, retain, and transfer the information from this site to future research endeavors. Resources Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Henderson, John R. (September 27, 2002). A guide to critical thinking about what you see on the web. ICYouSee: T is for thinking. Retrieved February 27, 2003, from http://www.ithaca.edu/library/Training/hott.html Harris, Robert. (November 17, 1997). Evaluating Internet research sources. VirtualSalt. Retrieved February 27, 2003, from http://www.virtualsalt.com/evalu8it.htm |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Nine: Metawriting in My Classroom If metacognition is the "knowledge and awareness of one's own cognitive processes" (Mayer, 2003, p. 100), then metawriting must be the knowledge and awareness of one's own writing processes. Young learners and those with learning difficulties often find it challenging to use metacognition and metawriting to assess their progress in literary composition. These two thought processes are essential for improving one's work. In my college preparatory class, writing is routine. These students spend at least four days a week in class writing, as suggested by Donald Graves (1985, par. 3). My other classes, however, are not quite as rigorous. I have a four-week long unit at the beginning of first quarter and at the beginning of fourth quarter in English I and English II that includes solely writing, but throughout the rest of each semester, the students are typically only required to write one journal entry per week and one or two formal essays per quarter. During their writing unit, though, they receive several grades for just one writing assignment because there are so many steps in the writing process. One such assignment is the basic narrative essay, although we refer to it as a "formal short story," omitting the word "essay" altogether. That word strikes fear and instant revulsion in the students, causing them to dislike the unit before they even begin writing. On the first day of this assignment, I begin the "planning process" (Mayer, 2003, p. 120) by asking the students to think of a specific time that they remember well-a time that they were excited, embarrassed, frightened, or sad perhaps. While they're brainstorming, I ask them to draw a picture (one that they will never have to show anyone) or write a short description of their extraordinary experience. Then I ask for volunteers to share that moment with us and to make the rest of the class feel the same way they did. By asking them to do share their ideas with the class, I am doing two things at once: I am asking the students to consider details of that incident while at the same time asking them to consider their audience. In a sense, they are using the "thinking aloud" procedure (Mayer, 2003, p. 116) by verbalizing their thoughts as these thoughts are generated and organized. For homework, the students are required to complete an outline of their story, including details of their experience in chronological order intermixed with emotions associated with each chronological step. When they come to class the next day, they turn in those outlines (for which they receive a grade), and we gather in small groups to discuss the outlines so far. The students explain their outlines to the others in their group. If the group members become confused at any point in time, they are encouraged to let the writer know. Then, they should suggest that the writer consider revisions by asking him leading questions about his work, such as "What do you mean by this?" or "How much time has passed between these two events?" Oftentimes, though, the students just say, "That sounds really great," without having listened attentively to the speaker at all. My intent is to have students "question rather than dictate; encourage rather than correct, remodel rather than rewrite" ("The Writing Process," 2002, par. 3). Unfortunately, it just does not always work that way. Perhaps in the future I will try an "edit/editor think sheet" (Mayer, 2003, p. 141) to force more individual and group participation. Upon completion of the outline and its revisions, the students are ready to begin "translating" their outlines into prose (Mayer, 2003, p. 125). They just kind of write freely, referring back to the outline often to ensure they include all the necessary details. Most of their first draft will probably sound pretty awkward and unfinished According to Richard Weiss (2003), "You'll write down a few words and they won't make sense. OR they won't be what you really meant to say" (D4). Donald Graves (1985) agrees: "Writers' first attempts to make sense are crude, rough approximations of what they mean" (par. 14). In addition, this first draft is likely to have numerous conventional errors (spelling, grammar, punctuation, etc.). These errors are acceptable in a first draft, because, like Mayer (2003) stresses, "an emphasis on correctly formed sentences results in poorer writing quality" (p. 127). These types of corrections will be made in the final stages of writing. The first draft will be evaluated on effort, time spent, and thoroughness of content. Once the students actually have a working draft completed (no matter how rough it is), they are ready to enter the "reviewing" process (Mayer, 2003, p. 133). At this point, the students are encouraged to review their own work and make all the changes they feel are necessary. Using an "edit/editor think-sheet" that I provide, the students answer questions concerning their paper--questions such as "Where might readers be confused in your story? Is the tone of your story appropriate throughout for the events that occur? What are the strengths of your paper? What are the weaknesses? How can you improve on the weak points of your paper? Are the events of your story written in chronological order? If not, is the chronology of the events clear?" [One good place to find reflective questions is the online "Writing Place" through Northwestern University (1996).] After finishing this questionnaire and making revisions, the students exchange papers with members of their small group, whereupon they begin to critique (not criticize) each other's work by answering the same basic types of questions about the stories. Also, I set up individualized "appointments" with these students to discuss how they can make some improvements. Finally, (and not until this point), we make an issue of the conventions...in a BIG, BAD way. After they have revised all of the content of their stories, the students are ready to make appropriate grammar and mechanical revisions. Not surprisingly, the students have already caught and fixed many of the errors from their previous drafts. They have written and re-written so many times they were bound to find some of their mistakes. Still, most of them have an abundance of agreement, spelling, comma, reference, and other common errors even after all of their revisions up to now. As a result, we have a lot of independent and group study on grammar as needed. When the project is finished at long last, the students turn in their work; i.e., their final "published" draft along with all the rough drafts, completed questionnaires, and a self-evaluation. Do I receive exceptional work? Rarely. But I can be sure that I have in my hands the best short stories that my students can write in the amount of time they have been given. As I mentioned earlier, not all of my essays are quite so thorough; thus, the process of writing is not always formatted in a "meta-writing" fashion. For instance, when my students complete an essay quiz over a novel we just read or when they have an in-class essay that requires them to write and turn in a finished draft within a 45-minute time frame, they cannot follow the writing process to their full potential. However, I can see improvement in their timed writings when they are previously given a similar essay assignment without the time restrictions (such as the assignment described throughout this essay). Still, rarely in the real world is anyone required to create a publishable draft of anything within 45 minutes. Richard H. Weiss (2003), an author and editor for the St. Louis Dispatch, explains that nobody writes well on the first draft, that a first-draft publication would be "lousy" because "nobody gets it right the first time. But the great thing about writing . . . is that you get a do over" (D4). References Graves, Donald H. (1985). All children can write. Learning Disabilities Focus. Retrieved March 4, 2003, from http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/writing/graves_process.html Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Merrill Prentice The writing place. (September 18, 1996). Northwestern University. Retrieved March 4, 2003, from http://www.writing.nwu.edu/tips/sa.html The writing process. (2002). Courier-Journal. Retrieved March 4, 2003, from http://www.courier-journal.com/education/cjya/process.html Weiss, Richard H. (March 3, 2003). Dude. Chill. Writings isn't as hard as you think. St. Louis dispatch. D1+. |
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Misty Mapes Lesson 10: Fifteen Wonderments about Chapters 9 and 12 of Mayer 1.According to Howard McCallister’s website titled 21st Century Problem Solving, “If you take the time to understand the solution of this problem then you will know how to solve all problems.” However, according to Mayer (2003), you must already have some “base” knowledge about the problem you are solving (p.309). I wonder how/if you can apply what you know about one type of problem to help you solve a completely different type of problem. Is it possible to not realize you are using a base problem you have encountered before? 2.I wonder if commentary, “which explains why various steps were taken and describes the rationale for each step” (Mayer, 2003, p. 310), is always necessary to improve problem-solving skills, and if so, why don’t more math and science teachers require written commentary with their assignments? Are written commentaries too time consuming and therefore counterproductive? 3.Are the methods for teaching problem solving to children with learning difficulties different than for the children without learning difficulties? 4.Is it possible that some people (e.g., people with learning difficulties) will never become good problem solvers regardless of their efforts to succeed at solving problems? 5.I wonder if most good problem solvers rely on mnemonics to help them recognize and remember specific “relevant base problems” (Mayer, 2003, p. 319). It seems to be a logical, or fair, assumption since much of problem solving depends on recall, such as “case-based learning” requires (Mayer, 2003, pp. 319-23; 407). 6.I wonder if administrators are intentionally checking for problem-solving skills when they ask an interviewee how he would react in a specific situation. Do they want to just make sure the teacher can handle behavioral issues, or are they looking at the big picture—of the teacher’s knowledge, experience, and problem-solving capabilities? (Are they really that intuitive?) :-) 7.I wonder if the government used the past “national goal of ensuring that all children who enter school as kindergartners are intellectually ready to learn” (Mayer, 2003, p. 401) as a guideline for the “No child left behind” law. 8.If “teaching component skills” (Mayer, 2003, p. 406) is effective for teaching problem solving, I wonder if English teachers should teach the components of grammar separately and specifically before teaching essays rather than using the whole-language learning approach to teaching essays, thus breaking the problem of formal writing into “smaller skills instead of teaching problem solving [like essay writing] as a monolithic ability” (Mayer, 2003, p.412). 9.If “expertise is highly domain specific” (Mayer, 2003, p. 407), how do good problem solvers transfer their knowledge across the curriculum? Or do they? 10.If students should be asked to perform “problem-solving tasks that are similar to the tasks they will be expected to perform later” (Mayer, 2003, p. 408), why do we have students perform experiments (mostly in science labs) that they will never use in the “real world”? What will they be learning from these assignments that will be beneficial to their problem-solving skills later in life? 11.I wonder how to teach the “problem-solving process” (Mayer, 2003, p. 408) to all students without leaving behind those who are exceptional problem solvers and those who have learning difficulties. 12.How is it that students can use “higher-order thinking skills” without having yet “mastered all relevant basic skills”? (Mayer, 2003, p. 412). Mayer only briefly mentions it in his examples (pp. 416-16, 421, & 424), but I never really understood how this concept was proven. 13.Why/How is it that some “mediationally deprived” children (Mayer, 2003, p. 419) succeed seemingly without effort in school despite their parents’ lack of support? 14.Do standardized exams generally test for problem-solving skills in every content area? Or do they focus mainly on students’ current knowledge without much emphasis on transfer? 15.I wonder how I can incorporate “low- and high-order skills” (Mayer, 2003, p. 425) into my lessons on formal writing. I wonder if I already do teach them both without realizing it. 16.I wonder where/if I can find a chart or some kind of guideline that explains the appropriate levels of problem-solving skills according to a child’s age/development. 17.According to Flynn (as explained in Mayer, 2003, p. 401), a person’s can increase his IQ by practicing problem-solving techniques. I wonder if this is true for adults as well as children. If an adult begins learning problem-solving techniques, can he increase his IQ? References Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. McCallister, Howard C. (March 7, 1998). Frequently asked questions about
problem solving: Show me how to solve all problems. 21st century problem
solving. Retrieved March 7, 2003, from http://www2.hawaii.edu/suremath/marysApples.html
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Misty Mapes Lesson Eleven: Common Misconceptions in Classes "[T]he slogan of constructivism [is] 'create experiences that engage students in actively making sense of concepts for themselves'" (Roschelle, 1995, par. 8). According to Mayer (2003), this process of "conceptual-change" involves "[r]ecognizing an anomaly, . . . [c]onstructing a new model, . . . [and] [u]sing a new model" (p. 194). Such "anomalies," or misconceptions, are common in every subject area, including English and computers. The most frequent misconceptions in English are probably grammar related. For instance, some of the "novice" English students come into high school with the idea that in all "ie/ei" words, "i" comes before "e" except after "c" or when spelled "eigh." What about the words "caffeine" and "foreign" (to name a couple)? Another common misconception is that a sentence cannot begin with the word "Because"; however, as long as it is used in an introductory phrase or clause rather than in the subject of the sentence, it is acceptable and even encouraged due to its effectiveness as a transition. Under certain circumstances, it can even be used in the subject. Unfortunately, most of these misconceptions were introduced to elementary students by teachers who were trying to simplify grammar construction. Even though the teachers had the best intentions, these anomalies are difficult to reverse in children who have relied on them for several years. Another example of a common misconception in English is that all words ending in "-ly" are adverbs. Many students learn this method of identifying adverbs as young children, yet this rule is not always correct. "Friendly" and "lonely," for instance, are never used as adverbs (except perhaps by Shakespeare and others who modify the rules of grammar for purposes of rhythm and/or sound). In order to rectify this misconception, I must first ask students to identify the purpose of adverbs-What do they do? Why do we use them? How do we find them? What questions do they answer? We use this method not only for review of adverbs, but for all parts of speech. Then, in small groups, the students complete vocabulary assignments, following a strategic plan. By "listening to students as they discuss ideas together," I am "shifting the balance of responsibility to the learner" (Powell, 1995, par. 9). For each word in the assignment, the group identifies its part of speech as it is used in the context of the literature book, writes what they think the definition is, writes the dictionary definition (in the same part of speech, including tense and/or number form), and then creates an original sentence of their own using the word. For extra credit (I just added this part recently), the students may create mnemonics using the words. Then, after the assignments are graded, revised, and discussed, the students are evaluated on their application of what they have learned; that is, I write fill-in-the-blank sentences with context clues, and the students write the vocabulary word that best fits into each sentence. I think it is essential to complete all of these steps in the vocabulary assignment for various reasons. It is not only important for the students to remember the definitions of the words; they need to know how to apply them. Martin (1989) explained in Romig (1997) that teachers should "[u]se assessment tools that include not only memory and comprehension, but also higher-level cognition" (par. 62). Through small-group collaboration, high-order thinking requirements, and repetitive exercises, the students eventually grasp not only the meaning of the vocabulary words, but how to recognize and apply them in new situations. The first step requires the students to look back into their literature books at the words as they are used in a given context. This step allows the students to use a model that they can emulate (Mayer, 2003, p. 175). The following step, identifying the word's part of speech as used in the text, demonstrates the student's awareness of sentence structure. The third step, writing the believed definition, requires students to look at the context in which the word is used and predict the definition based on its use in the model sentence, thus "engag[ing] in experiences that challenge hypotheses and encourage discussion" (Powell, 1995, text box). By writing down the glossary definition (the fourth step), students are basically just copying down information and changing it (if necessary) to the same tense and/or number as the word. For example, if the vocabulary word is plural, the definition should be written as plural too. The final step, writing an original sentence using that word, requires students to "[construct] a new model" (Mayer, 2003, p. 234) based on the information that they have learned about that word through the assignment. Another area in which misconceptions are noteworthy is in the use of computers. Adults and students alike often assume that all ".edu" sites are reliable because of their URL. Similarly, they assume that all credible sites employ good grammar or that, conversely, all sites that employ good grammar are credible. The truth is that while most sites containing ".edu" in the URL do contain reliable information, sometimes students' work is posted on these sites. One cannot assume that the information presented in any site is credible. A site having ".edu" in the URL or a site's author employing or not employing good grammar skills in his articles does not determine the value of the site's content. One more common misconception is that computers always enhance learning. I am currently an instructor of several online courses, one of which is an ACT preparatory course in which the students must read the lectures and take the quizzes online. The program is cost-effective; however, the students who take an ACT prep course offline (in a face-to-face atmosphere) really have the advantage because the printed pre-tests that they take are more similar to the actual ACT test, and the environment in which they learn is more similar to the environment of the ACT testing environment. How can we overcome these misconceptions? In the College Prep course I teach, which includes a heavy-duty research paper unit, the class discusses computer use and its place in our course. Through some leading questions requiring higher-order thinking (Powell, 1995, text box), I encourage the students to think of ways to determine how a site can be deemed reliable or unreliable. Then we spend a lot of time in the open lab in front of computers, where the students, usually in small groups, practice finding both credible and non-credible sites with ".edu" in the URL, sites using good grammar, and sites using poor grammar. Then we bring the examples before the class and discuss them again as a large group. By the end of this lesson, the students can typically differentiate between a credible site and a non-credible site. The misconceptions that students have are often due to shortcuts made by teachers. Although I have stated unfortunate instances in which elementary teachers have created anomalies for students, I am aware that I, too, am guilty of teaching students inappropriately for future endeavors. Too often, I summarize Shakespeare in hopes to finish the unit faster, and I sometimes even have the students take quizzes in which all they have to do is regurgitate information from the text. The required curriculum habitually drives teachers to complete lessons and units in an amount of time that discourages depth in any content area. In history courses, for instance, teachers frequently have to rush through important eras just to ensure that the students are exposed to all significant events of our past. How much of it can these students possibly retain? It is a shame, definitely, but is it completely the fault of teachers, or are teachers expected to "teach" more than is humanly possible with the suggested results of educational psychologists? References Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill Prentice Powell, Mary Jo, ed. (1995). Constructing knowledge in the classroom. Classroom compass. Retrieved March 11, 2003, from http://www.sedl.org/scimath/compass/v01n03/construct.html Romig, James. (1997). Cogito: The cognitive paradigm. CourseNotes in development and learning: An educational and cognitive perspective. Retrieved March 11, 2003, from http://www.educ.drake.edu/romig/cogito/cognitive_paradigm.html Roschelle, Jeremy. (1995). Learning in interactive environments: Prior knowledge and new experience. Public institutions for personal learning: Establishing a research agenda. Retrieved March 11, 2003, from http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/museumeducation/priorknowledge.html |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Twelve: The Paradox of Goals "The Goal, Action, Outcome Model of Social Information-Processing" illustrates the "possibility of teachers and students working together in productive ways to help each other understand and modify the actions of each other" (Anderson). Every teacher's goal should be to create an atmosphere in which everybody feels comfortable, not intimidated (Anderson). In order to create such an environment, the teachers and students need to be considerate of each other. For instance, a teacher should consider his students' individual abilities; their learning difficulties; their after-school activities, such as extra-curricular activities, work, and family time. Likewise, students need to be aware of their teachers' schedules and after-school obligations. In addition, all involved parties need to understand that regardless of safter-school commitments, a set curriculum does exist that has somewhat strict requirements that must be met by both teachers and students. So, the goals of completing all the course units AND ensuring that all students improve their skills in a given content area should work together for a smooth, productive learning experience, but the two goals, unfortunately, do not always coincide. The teachers, oftentimes in collaboration with administration and/or a curriculum committee, determine the types of units in a course and sometimes even the lessons in each unit. This curriculum is organized in a manner that will hopefully improve the skills of the students. In English II at Teutopolis High School, for instance, the curriculum requires the students to read by genre (next year, we will organize the units by theme, I think), so first semester, the students read about six to ten short stories and a novel (Grapes of Wrath) while they are simultaneously reading Accelerated Reader books and working on building their writing skills. The goal in that first semester is to incorporate reading and writing, using both skills to feed off each other, thus improving both of them at the same time. In theory, this system should work well. The students are constantly reading, writing, analyzing, researching, discussing, working together, working independently. After they read a short story full of suspense, they will perhaps write a narrative written in a similar style. The more they read and write, the more practice they receive in both skills. Thus, they will become better readers and writers, right? Not necessarily. The two goals--meeting curriculum requirements and improving students' skills--sometimes clash, such as in my English II course. Writing is a significant part of the curriculum in that class. Since all students do not write equally well, the teacher is responsible for modifying the assignments to fit each child's needs, thereby promoting individual growth among the students. By offering a variety of topics on which to write, teachers allow the students to take partial responsibility for the quality of their work, and students appreciate that opportunity to help direct how the curriculum requirements are fulfilled. And usually, when a student has a hand in his education, his motivation rises, and his work's quality increases. Also, the teacher and students are more likely to reach the goal of successful writing by students if they consider each other's outside obligations. If a student is involved in numerous activities or works six hours every day after school, perhaps he needs extended time to finish a big writing project. Likewise, a student who is a poor writer or even just slow in the writing process could benefit from additional time. A teacher must remember that the goal is to obtain quality work from students as well as meeting the curriculum requirements. However, if the curriculum demands that a new paper be written after every lesson or every unit, the students are not being enlightened by the material, but rather becoming burned out. They cannot improve their reading and writing skills without spending more time on them. We tend to jump from one story to the next just to finish all the stories by the end of the quarter, thereby not allowing time to dwell on important elements of the story that would help the students develop their own writing and reading skills. In addition, when the students write, teachers often mark the students' errors for them, give them a grade, and say "Better luck next time." The teachers and students are not always to blame though. Students do not have enough time to develop their writing assignments before turning them in, and teachers do not have enough time to efficiently and effectively assess 100 essays every day and then allow revisions since they must finish all the units. Many parents, administration, and even students want the teachers to give as many grades as possible in a semester. In order to do so, some teachers spend time grading tedious exercises that are often unmeaningful. Teachers cannot be expected to constantly grade subjective work. Time simply will not permit it. Therefore, the best method might be to have a student work on a writing assignment until it is publishable and then have that student move on to the next writing assignment. His skills would be improved and his grade would be higher,....but what if that student works slower than the rest of the students and does not complete as many assignments as the rest of them? Should he receive the same high grade? Ah, there's the dilemma. Thus, we have the curriculum--to make sure a student completes all the work he is supposed to complete by the end of the course. It is a paradox, for sure-a never-ending circle of delusion. The same guidelines that are intended to guide students through the learning process actually hinder the students from learning. It can end up being a lot of work and little or no growth. References Anderson, Tom. (n.d.). Commentary. Social-Information Processing. Retrieved March 13, 2002, from http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/content.pl?action=LIST&render_type=DEFAULT&content_id=_94518_1 |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Thirteen: 15 Wonderments about Glasser 1. I wonder what motivated Glasser to turn from chemical engineering to psychology and psychiatry (p. 122). The fields of study are so drastically different. 2. I wonder if Glasser ever taught in a classroom to help him develop his theories on classroom discipline. 3. I wonder why we have read so much about the "school's role in meeting basic needs as the PRIMARY means of encouraging participation and desirable behavior" (emphasis added, p. 122). I understand that this class focuses on our role as educators, but very little is mentioned (if anything) about the parents' role as educators and disciplinarians. 4. According to Glasser's theory, "students are in control of their own behavior" (p. 122). I'm sure this is true for most students, but is it true for all students, including students with behavioral disorders, and if not, how should "classroom meetings" (p. 122) be adjusted to meet the needs of these students as well as the others while still being fair to all? 5. Should schools change the way they "function," thus motivating "students to participate willingly in the school program"? (p. 123). If the schools are adjusting to declined effort and behavior, are we really benefiting society? I wonder what the alternative would be-a higher dropout rate, truancy, expulsions? 6. If teachers are expected to modify behaviors, helping "offending students make better choices" (p. 123), shouldn't they be required to receive more educational psychology training in behavior modification? Couldn't a teacher without the proper training do more damage than help to an offending student? 7. How often should classroom meetings be held, and how long should each meeting last. Are they supposed to take place during a regular class period? If they are really supposed to be held 2-3 times per week at 45 minutes apiece, how would teachers get much besides classroom meetings accomplished? 8. Glasser believes that students feel "pleasant" when their needs are met and "frustrated" when their needs are not met (p. 124). I wonder if that means that a teacher who does not meet a student's needs is at least partially responsible for a student's misbehavior…even though "students are in control of their behavior, that no unseen factors are forcing them to do this or that, and that they actually choose to behave as they do" (p. 122). 9. If "what schools require is a new commitment to quality education" (p. 124), perhaps teachers should be offered more incentives to create this "quality" learning environment. 10. According to Glasser's theory, students should be allowed to learn about "topics THEY recognize as being useful or relevant in their lives" (emphasis added, p. 124). However, sometimes it is nearly impossible for me to get students to understand the importance of writing essays or reading poetry….So, should the students who don't see how these topics are beneficial be exempt from them? (I doubt it.) 11. If teachers should "try to befriend their students" (p. 125), why do many university professors still discourage such a practice? My husband, who is currently completing his practicum through a nearby university, has been told by several of his instructors that young teachers need to enter the classroom with "an iron fist." 12. I wonder how Glasser concluded his statistics ["no more than half of our…students are willing to learn….; no more than 15 percent…do quality work" (p. 125)]. Did he include numerous rural and urban schools throughout the United States in his study? Did he include the views of teachers and students? 13. I wonder how difficult it would be to revise the curriculum at our school to create a better "quality curriculum" (p. 127). I believe that three of the five teachers in my department would NOT favor cutting some of the work in exchange for better quality work. 14. If students are asked to complete an assignment to the best of their ability without receiving a grade for it (p. 128), I wonder if they really will do their best work. 15. If teachers are encouraged to let the students help develop course tasks, I wonder if lesson plans often have to be revised several times to incorporate the state standards or if the students have input on that aspect of the plan development as well. References Charles, C.M. (2002). Building classroom discipline (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Thirteen: Classroom Meetings Classroom meetings are roundtable discussions in which "teacher and students jointly discuss, and find solutions to, problems of behavior and other class matters" (Charles, 2002, p. 122). These meetings are essential in developing a plan that will meet the students' basic emotional and academic needs. Because students often blame insensitive teachers on their misbehavior, the "democratic approach" of class meetings works well because it "delegates responsibility of behavior to the class" (Behavior Management, 2002, par. 5). As a high school English teacher, I use a modified method of classroom meetings. Although my classes do not form a "tight circle" for discussions two or three times a week for "up to about 45 minutes each" (Anderson, n.d., par. 34), we do routinely discuss our objectives and procedures. At the beginning of the semester, we discuss what our rules and consequences should be. Sometimes I kindly override suggestions made by students, but usually they help develop a sold rule outline with "a plan to correct [inappropriate] behavior" (Glasser's Reality Model, n.d., par. 7). We only develop the plan once, but every now and then, depending on the class, we may have to revise it to meet new needs in the classroom. For instance, in a physical education course that I teach, the rules for "spotting" in the weight room became more stringent when several of the students who were co-spotters were removed from my class to drive for their driver's education course. We discuss changes like this because it is important for the students to understand why the rules are changing; the rules need to be "useful" to them. In this particular case, the rules changed for the students' safety, to keep them "free from harm" (Charles, 2002, p. 126). According to the William Glasser Institute, "[a] plan is always open to revision" (par. 9). I also create a curriculum (with the limited freedom that I have) through classroom meetings. "When teachers introduce new segments of learning, they should hold discussions with students and . . . ask them to identify what they would like to explore in depth" (Charles, 2002, p. 127). For instance, I will ask the students why having grammar skills is important. Then we decide, as a group, what topics within grammar we find most challenging. After narrowing the topics down, we choose one for a unit, thus "discover[ing] what [students] really want" and discuss methods for "creat[ing] a new plan for fulfilling that 'want' more effectively in the future" (What is Reality Therapy, 2001, par. 6). The preferred method typically involves "learning teams" and "cooperative learning methodologies" (Anderson, n.d., par. 22). In fact, the students often want to team-teach the lessons, using me only as a guide. Finally, the class determines how they should be evaluated on their comprehension and application of the skills they will have learned throughout the unit, thereby involving them in the "[p]rocedures for reporting or demonstrating accomplishments" (Anderson, n.d., par. 22). Due to unforeseen obstacles, though, we often have to reconsider our plan and modify it as necessary. Class meetings can successfully work in an Internet learning environment as well as in a face-to-face classroom, although it may not be as easy. As an online English instructor, I encourage students to participate in the structure of the course at the beginning of the semester. We hold an asynchronous threaded discussion that asks questions such as "What do you expect to learn during this course? How are these topics relevant to your life and your future? How would you like to go about learning these topics (i.e., how to post them, how to evaluate them)?" Unfortunately, students write very little, giving short, vague responses and little feedback to other students' responses. Also, it may take a couple of weeks-or even more-just to finish a discussion. Synchronous discussions, such as "chat rooms," are very helpful, because the teacher can more easily and quickly lead students in more specific, focused conversations, thus completing entire classroom meetings within an hour or so. However, not all students have access to computers at the same time, and it somewhat defeats the point of taking an online course ("any time, any place, any pace"). Sometimes, class meetings can even be held through threaded discussions for a face-to-face classroom. A teacher here at our high school has used this method. On the first day of school, he asked the students to consider rules and consequences that should be followed in that class. Then, rather than to discuss it at the moment, he handed out books to the students and told them about himself. Their assignment was to think about potential rules and post them at a later time that day on the threaded discussion and read others' responses as well. This way, the teacher and students could see the comments before their next class, allowing them to prepare for a thorough, focused classroom meeting. Classroom meetings should be utilized to promote a feeling of community among the students and teacher in all courses. Although teachers may be powerless to employ all of Glasser's theories, such as avoiding competitive grading-e.g., letter grades (Anderson, n.d., par. 24), condensed versions of his theory still assist in the learning process for students, making the classroom a more pleasant environment for all. References Anderson, Tom. (n.d.). Commentary. Lesson 13-Glasser's model: Empowerment and problem solving. Retrieved March 18, 2003, from: http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/content.pl?action=LIST&render_type=DEFAULT&content_id=_94521_1 Behavior management. (August 23, 2002). Webring student teacher education. Retrieved March 18, 2003, from http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/teachereduc/Behaviour.html Charles, C.M. (2002). Building classroom discipline (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Glasser's reality model. (n.d.). Islamic school of greater Kansas City. Retrieved March 18, 2003, from http://www.isgkc.net/Hamed Hypertext Project/Glasser Reality Model.htm What is reality therapy? (September 27, 2001). WGII. Retrieved March 18, 2003, from http://indigo.ie/~irti/whatis.htm William Glasser Institute. (March 14, 2003). Reality Therapy. Retrieved March 18, 2003, from http://www.wglasser.com/whatisrt.htm |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Fourteen: Gangs at THS The Illinois Gang-Related Legislation (2002) defines a gang as "any combination, confederation, alliance, network, conspiracy, understanding, or other similar conjoining, in law or in fact, of 3 or more persons with an established hierarchy that, through its membership or through the agency of any member engages in a course or pattern of criminal activity" (par. 35). According to this definition, Teutopolis school district has no history of gang activity. Occasionally, a student from this community will exhibit acts of aggression, violence, and/or destructive behavior, but, so far, these acts have not been affiliated with gang activity. Teutopolis is a small, old, somewhat-wealthy, rural, white, German, Catholic, southern-Illinois community with strong, traditional families and conventional ideals. In fact, the school district, which is a public school district, strongly resembles a parochial school-with the elementary students walking across the school lawn to the cathedral for Mass before the public school day begins. The students here are generally well behaved, showing consistent respect to their teachers and their peers. Although the district is not immune to the arrival of gangs, it has not yet suffered at the hands of any. According to the NCES report "Gangs and Victimization at School" (1995), Teutopolis has all the qualities of a low-crime area (Tables 1&2). The district does take some safety precautions, however, against gangs and violence in general, albeit the local schools have "low levels of security" (NCES, 1998, par. 17) with required visitor check-in; closed campus over lunch hour; limited access to the building; occasional drug sweeps; and a couple of county-wide school officers, who frequent all of the schools in the county but spend most of their time in the largest school, Effingham High School. There are no metal detectors or full-time guards to assist in the protection of the students here, but the high school teachers and students at THS report a great sense of security within this building. Apparently, most southern communities in Illinois feel the same, rating crime as their least important problem-at only 7 percent, compared to the state average of 11 percent (Nelson, 2001, p. 4). In addition, 96 percent of the residents in southern Illinois reported that they felt safe or very safe, compared to the state's average of 92 percent (Nelson, 2001, p. 7). Most of the physical measures of security, however, are limited to keeping students safe from external forces coming into the school to promote violence. There is little security within the school itself to prevent the use of weapons. Since there are no metal detectors and no on-site officers, if students decided to brawl inside the building, the teachers and administrators might have little or no forewarning. The district has discussed peer mediation and violence-prevention/reduction several times to great length, but it has not yet implemented any organized program aside from D.A.R.E. (at the elementary and middle school level), but even that program has been removed from our curriculum. Apparently, this district is one of only 22 percent of Illinois schools that do not have any organized violence-prevention/intervention programs (NCES, 1998, par. 19). However, if a teacher or administrator is made aware of a potential outbreak among students, the school does have a policy to follow. The policy states that a school staff member is required to immediately notify the building principal, who will, "upon receiving such a report,…notify the local law enforcement agency, State Police, and the [students'] parent(s)/guardian(s)" (Teutopolis CUSD 50, 2002). This is basically the extent of the policy. The teachers here, including myself, are naïve and ignorant of the methods to handle gang members. While we may deal with the occasional "wise acre," we rarely, if ever, have run-ins with unmanageable students. Since I have researched this topic, though, I have learned some new methods of intervention of gang activity that I intend to use if I ever have the misfortune to need mediation. Before any conflicts arise, I can use preventative measures, such as routine "intellectual conflicts" (Johnson & Johnson, n.d., par. 5), or debates, in the classroom. This activity recommends that I present a controversial topic to students (or perhaps the students choose the topic), and then, in groups, they discuss the topic, "prepare intellectual positions, present them, criticize opposing positions, view the issue from a variety of perspectives, and synthesize the various positions into one position," thus learning how to responsibly resolve conflicts with a degree of maturity (Johnson & Johnson, n.d., par. 5). Another way I prevent conflict in my classroom is by constantly (as much as humanly possible) displaying "friendliness, positive attitudes, [the] ability to listen and [the] ability to compliment genuinely" (Anderson, 1999, par. 38). As educators, we need to look beyond the conflict to the life experience of each individual. According to the Savannah Family Institute (2001), the top reasons for youth violence are: "murdered or wounded" soul; loss of attachment or connection; parental rejection or abandonment; increase in the intensity of weapons of violence; residence in violence-saturated society; child abuse and negative mapping; and "code of honor and frustrated justice" (pp. 3-5). A good teacher can consider these environmental factors and deter negativity in the classroom just by being an example for the students to relate to and by being available for the students to talk to. Unfortunately, the class debates and the demonstration of "courtesy and good manners" (Anderson, 1999, par. 38) are not always enough to prevent conflict from arising. Therefore, I need to be prepared for further action if it becomes necessary. The first step I would most likely take after an argument surfaces would be to identify the type of conflict as interpersonal, inter-group, intra-personal, or intra-group (Anderson, 1999). Depending on the severity of the conflict, I might need to request a conference with more qualified personnel, such as the administration, guidance counselors, and school officer (if available). If the conflict were interpersonal, I would try to be a mediator, following the guidelines set up by numerous organizations, such as Pace University's "Peer Mediation Guidelines and Steps for Active Listening" (n.d.). Although the ideal situation would probably be to have a student who is trained in peer mediation take the arbitrator's role, I think it would be best to either play that role myself after studying the proper methods OR to ask another trained adult to be the mediator, because our students have not been properly trained. According to Johnson and Johnson (n.d.), this type of conflict "can be managed constructively...or destructively" (par. 2), so a mediator should encourage creative problem solving, reasoning, and decision-making. As a mediator, I would also try to "help individuals cope with stress and deal with unforeseen adversities...[and] create a sense of joint identity and cohesiveness within relationships" (Johnson & Johnson, n.d., par. 2). By remaining calm and reasonable, I can hopefully not only gain the respect of the conflicting individuals, but also encourage them to mirror my behavior and technique. Intra-group conflicts, which are often "conflicts between teachers and students...involv[ing] infractions of rules, procedures and other actions which the 'group' does not approve of" (Anderson, 1999, par. 35), are also often manageable, given the proper environment and arbitration by a person or group of people who have received some minimal training. According to Anderson (1999), intra-group conflicts can be resolved by teaching the group about conflict resolution, collecting data from all conflicting parties, "neutralizing" history, problem-solving to reach agreements, and following through with a "closing event, such as a party or dinner" (par.18). "Large group techniques" such as classroom meetings can be used to "brainstorm and solve" these problems (Anderson, 1999, pars. 36-37). I believe that, once again, if I remain calm and genuinely considerate throughout this type of conflict, the odds of resolving the conflict are much higher than if I lose my temper and send the student out of the classroom. Intra-personal conflicts are a little trickier and a lot more common at Teutopolis High School than are the previously mentioned types of conflict. Because this type of conflict occurs within an individual, I may not recognize that there even is a problem unless the student WANTS me to know. This conflict "occurs when the desired actions and/or outcomes of an individual are not consistent [with] those that actual[ly] occur" (Anderson, 1999, par. 13). I have had more than a few students battling with bulimia and anorexia over the past several years, and often, by the time we teachers recognize there is a problem, the student has become dangerous to him/herself. Some other students feel immense stress when they fail a quiz or receive anything lower than an A in a class, even to the point of considering suicide. These situations occur much more often than I had ever believed before I started teaching; unfortunately, I am not trained to deal with such situations. Whenever I see a conflict like these, I refer the student to the guidance department and discuss my inferences of the situation with the counselors there. Also, I document any unusual behavior by these students for further investigation. However, I NEVER try to handle the situation myself; instead, I keep my notes and wait for further instruction by a trained mediator. Inter-group conflicts, those that consist of multiple groups whose goals and/or actions are "incompatible" (Anderson, 1999, par. 26), are similar to intra-personal conflicts in that they both usually require external mediation by a trained arbitrator. Typically, these run-ins are complex and persistent (par. 40). Once again, I would refer this type of conflict to the guidance office, administrators, and/or the school police officers, depending on the nature and severity of the conflict. Teutopolis is, overall, free from gang activity at the moment, but not free from conflict…and gangs may be here not too far in the future. Effingham County has had some gang activity, but it was short lived. Gang members moved into Effingham just a few years ago, hoping to profit from the drug market due to the high flow of traffic on our two interstates. Effingham residents quickly unified and "arrested" the gang's efforts (Thoele, Teutopolis CUSD 50 District Superintendent, 2003). According to the Research and Analysis Unit of the Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority (2000), the number of Effingham County's violent offenses decreased by 42 percent between 1994 and 1998, reporting 9 percent less violent crime than smaller, rural counties nearby (p. 3). In addition, theft and overall arrests decreased by a significant amount (pp. 3-5). Still, the possibility for gangs to move into the area is rising. Curious students can be found on the Internet researching information about gangs. Fortunately, most inappropriate sites are blocked (in the schools, anyway), preventing students from viewing violent and graphic material. And most of the information on the Internet about gangs (that I have found) relates to intervention techniques and statistical data. However, some sites remain available to students, though perhaps only at the homes that do not have content-blocking software, that are potentially dangerous to the safety of our school. Sites that teach students how to build bombs, how to properly tie a noose to quickly snap a neck, and how to join a racist or other socially destructive group (to name a few) are easily accessible to our children. Therefore, we must teach them from a very young age how to exhibit loving characteristics, how to resolve conflicts, and how to make wise decisions, regardless of the community's state of purity and exclusion from urban tribulations. This is the first and most important step in gang prevention. References Anderson, Thomas H. (1999). A treatise on conflict in the classroom. Retrieved March 21, 2003, from http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/content.pl?action=LIST&render_type=DEFAULT&content_id=_94528_1 Fran Thoele. (March 27, 2003). Interview by Misty Mapes. Teutopolis, IL. Illinois gang related legislation. (2002). Retrieved on March 25, 2003, from http://www.iir.com/nygc/gang-legis/illinois.htm Johnson, David, and Johnson, Roger. (n.d.). Teaching students to be peacemakers. Cooperative learning center. Retrieved March 25, 2003, from http://www.clcrc.com/pages/peace.html National Center for Education Statistics. (July 1995). Gangs and victimization. Retrieved on March 25, 2003, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs/95740.html National Center for Education Statistics. (March 18, 1998). Executive summary. Violence and discipline problems in U.S. public schools: 1996-97. Retrieved on March 25, 2003, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs98/violence/98030001.html Nelson, Cynthia. (2001). The 2001 report on the Illinois policy survey. Dekalb, IL: Center for governmental studies. Pace University. (n.d.). Peer mediation guidelines and steps for active listening. Retrieved on March 27, 2003, from http://csis.pace.edu/schools/mv/erandall/guidelinesandsteps.htm Research and Analysis Unit of the Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority. (April 2000). A profile of the Effingham County criminal and juvenile justice system. Chicago: ICJIA. Savannah Family Institute. (2001). Prevention and treatment of youth violence: 7 steps to reestablish authority and reclaim love. n.c.: Savannah Family Institute. Teutopolis Community Unit School District 50. (October 15, 2002). Student Discipline. Teutopolis, IL: Teutopolis CUSD 50. |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Fourteen: The Great Debate The short story "The Most Dangerous Game," by Richard Connell, can be found at http://mbhs.bergtraum.k12.ny.us/cybereng/shorts/danger.html. Is hunting human beings a sport or a crime? That is the great debate in Richard Connell's "The Most Dangerous Game." In this psychologically disturbing story, the main characters, Rainsford and General Zaroff, disagree about the morality of hunting down and killing human beings. Because their conflict is "an expressed struggle between...two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources and interference from others in achieving their goals," the two men are engaged in an "interpersonal conflict" (Anderson, 1999, par. 21). Rainsford, a civilized hunter and author, believes that, regardless of circumstances, killing a person for sport is wrong. He concedes that hunting animals is valid, though; in fact, he considers it "the best sport in the world" (Connell, 1924, par. 7). Still, he does not condone the killing of humans. He tells General Zaroff, "what you speak of is murder...cold-blooded murder" (Connell, 1924, pars. 111, 113). Rainsord apparently believes that all human beings are valuable and that only wild beasts should be hunted. Zaroff, on the other hand, argues that hunting should not be limited to the slaughter of animals: "The weak of the world were put here to give the strong pleasure....I hunt the scum of the earth--sailors from tramp ships--lascars, blacks, Chinese, whites, mongrels" (Connell, 1924, par. 118). Zaroff, then, sees at least some human beings as weak and dispensable, and he considers the hunt a "game" since he gives the men "a supply of food and an excellent hunting knife...[and] three hours' start" (Connell, 1924, par. 130). Each of these two men tries to explain his beliefs to the other in a way that will convince the other to concede with him, but neither of them will budge. Their process of negotiation fails, largely because they have very different, but equally strong, beliefs about the morality of their convictions. They have each stated their arguments, described their feelings, and given reasons for their beliefs--the first three steps of negotiation (Johnson & Johnson, n.d., par. 7), but they have not completed the process to reach an agreement. Although they have not settled their differences at this point, at least they have remained civil. Unfortunately, they are discovering that "they are not capable of working out future disputes themselves" (Johnson & Johnson, n.d., par. 11). The next logical step for these two men should probably be to seek "peer mediation" (Anderson, 1999, par. 24), but since they are stranded on an uninhabited island (apart from the imprisoned men, or potential "game," and Zaroff's loyal servant Ivan), they have no option to use this method of conflict resolve. In other words, there is no NEUTRAL party to intervene and help "[end] hostilities between [the] disputants" (Johnson & Johnson, n.d., par. 8). Because the two men do not resolve their differences, the conflict intensifies and becomes physically aggressive. The day after the conversation, General Zaroff warns Rainsford that as evening falls, the two of them will begin the "game" against each other. Rainsford then has no option but to defend himself. He considers other alternatives to evade the conflict, such as trying to escape the island, but his efforts are fruitless. He eventually discovers that the only way to end the conflict is to dispose of his adversary. He reluctantly shoots Zaroff, thus "resolving" the conflict when Zaroff falls dead at his feet. This conclusion is an unfortunate one. Ideally, General Zaroff would have had MUCH counseling and, no doubt, an awful lot of time in jail. However, since Rainsford did not have that external support, he did the only thing he could do to provide for himself a safe and secure environment. References Anderson, Thomas H. (1999). A treatise on conflict in the classroom. Retrieved March 21, 2003, from http://blackboard.cites.uiuc.edu/bin/common/content.pl?action=LIST&render_type=DEFAULT&content_id=_94528_1 Connell, Richard. (1924). The most dangerous game. n.c.: n.p. Retrieved March 27, 2003, from http://mbhs.bergtraum.k12.ny.us/cybereng/shorts/danger.html Johnson, David, and Johnson, Roger. (n.d.). Teaching students to be peacemakers. Cooperative learning center. Retrieved March 25, 2003, from http://www.clcrc.com/pages/peace.html |
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Misty Mapes Lesson Fifteen: Cognitive Apprenticeship in Online Courses According Richard E. Mayer (2003), "situated learning…[is] the idea that learning is shaped by and depends on the situation in which it takes place, including the social and cultural context of learning" (431). If students are expected to learn for meaning in everyday life, they must have opportunities in school to prepare them for situations they will encounter outside of school. Therefore, students should become "apprentices," allowing them to "[learn] to perform intellectually like the expert members of their societies" (Mayer, 2003, p. 432). By transforming classrooms into small communities, teachers can assist and guide students through the "cognitive 'processes that experts use to handle complex tasks'" (Collins, Brown, & Newman qtd. in Mayer, 2003, p. 439). But what about in a "virtual" classroom, one that is taught and taken completely online without any face-to-face interaction? Can such cognitive apprenticeship exist in this environment? According to Mayer (2003), cognitive apprenticeship encourages modeling, coaching, and scaffolding (p. 440), all of which are integral methods of instruction in the online classroom as well as in the traditional face-to-face classroom. The process of course design and development and the instruction of the course are perhaps more challenging because of the lack of synchronous communication among the classmates and the instructor(s), but those dedicated to the ideals of such a course will work together to create the sense of community necessary for its success. The developer/designer of the course has the difficult task of creating content within the curriculum that is appropriate for all cultures. Because the course may be available to students of varying ages, races, environments, ethics, etc., the course must be written in such a way that it will reach the needs of all its students. Whereas most course curricula is written for a specific age group, oftentimes the Internet courses are not. For instance, Illinois Virtual High School's Creative Writing course (2003) is open to all high-school-aged students. The content of that course, then, consists of reading, writing, and researching assignments that can be completed and assessed at different levels of comprehension, analysis, and interpretation. In addition, the course developers/designers need to consider the importance of "community" within the class. Most of the time, they incorporate asynchronous threaded discussions, group projects, and/or synchronous chats via chat rooms or telephones (conferencing calls, e.g.). The courses must also require the learning of skills that will benefit students in their lives outside of school. In another IVHS English course (2003), the students are asked to write a letter to one of the soldiers in Iraq. After reading Steve Allen's "Death Watch, Near Que Son" (1992), an article about a soldier's experience in the Vietnam War, and thoroughly discussing the effects of that war and the current war in Iraq, the students are asked to write a descriptive letter to a U.S. soldier currently serving his or her duty in the Middle East. This letter should vividly describe the beauty of the changing season(s) and other positive aspects of life in the United States of America as well as perhaps encourage and thank the soldier. Students who choose not to participate in this project are asked to submit alternative ideas that are equally appropriate for the purpose, which is to enhance creative writing techniques, letter writing techniques, and communication skills. Hopefully, students will also develop a deeper appreciation for our nation during the process. This lesson has obvious training skills for real life in it, but a course developer can only write the assignments; the instructor must guide students through them, following through on the developer's intention of incorporating community spirit into the class. Students must be required to participate in the threaded discussions. Some students may try to get away with writing short, vague responses to discussion questions, so the teacher should first explain to the students how he expects students to write a thoughtful reaction. In fact, a model, or example, would be an excellent tool for students to use to develop their own written reactions. Students should also be encouraged to respond to each other's reactions in order to create "community." The written responses can only be considered a discussion if there is thoughtful interaction. The teacher should then use coaching and scaffolding to help the students improve their writing and communication skills. A teacher of an online course does not typically have the luxury of communicating with all the students at one time, so he must be creative in his endeavors to attain full effort and participation from all of them, often dealing with one student at a time and often waiting patiently for students to reciprocate communication. If all students are truly interested, the course runs smoothly; unfortunately, though, many high school students are not self-motivated enough to remain on task. Group projects are also challenging to monitor, but like Slavin (1982) says, "Cooperation is one of the most important human activities….In modern life, people who can organize as a group to accomplish a common end are likely to be successful…in any endeavor" (qtd. in Mayer, 2002, pp. 444-45). Therefore, teachers need to carefully and consistently supervise and assist the students as they work cooperatively toward a common goal. In addition, much like traditional classroom teachers, online teachers need to recognize and resolve conflict and adjust the curriculum to meet all students' needs. Obviously, the online course instructors and developers have a mighty task in creating a sound course for all students; however, it is the motivated students who are really the essential element of a successful class. Students who are eager to learn and participate in group activities are more likely to learn the necessary skills for growth and development in the real world. In online classes, students have the benefit of considering, proofreading, editing, and revising their responses to threaded discussion questions and reactions. In addition, they have the opportunity in the online class to interact with others from different backgrounds, cultures, races, etc. This type of exposure, which is often not found in a traditional classroom, provides life experience for students who may otherwise never have such an opportunity. This interaction among pupils of different backgrounds promotes understanding, tolerance, and even appreciation for diverse cultures and ethics. While students are discussing themes in Carl Sandburg's "Chicago" (1916), for instance, rural students are also learning about life in the city from the urban students. Similarly, city students discover, during the reading of John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men (1937), that many children in rural Illinois still wake up at 4:00 in the morning every day to milk the cows and feed the horses before school. Online schools should not replace traditional schools altogether; however, virtual courses do have a significant place in our modern educational institutions. If developed and instructed properly, they can supplement a traditional school effectively, using a method of cognitive apprenticeship and allowing students to participate in cooperative and individual projects that promote the learning of important life skills. References Allen, Steve. (July 1992). Death watch, Near Que Son. Military. pp. 19-21. Illinois Virtual High School (2003). Retrieved on March 31, 2003, from http://www.ivhs.org Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Sandburg, Carl. (1916). Chicago. Retrieved on March 31, 2003, from http://www.poets.org/poems/poems.cfm?45442B7C000C07050A70 Steinbeck, John. (1937). Of mice and men. New York: Penguin. |
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Misty Mapes Lesson 15: Priming Student Motivation with the Use of Computers and Technology Disclaimer: The following project idea is not intended to promote the war against Iraq but rather to promote national pride and encouragement during these tough times. “[E]ducation comes only through willing attention to and participation in school activities….[T]he teacher must select these activities with reference to the child’s interests, powers, and capabilities” (John Dewey, 1913, qtd. in Mayer, 2003, p. 462). Students who express a desire to learn more about a given subject or lesson are more likely to succeed than those who are disinterested in it. Therefore, a teacher must use creative motivational techniques to acquire and retain the students’ interest, which is necessary for their success. Computers and other technological tools can be a great help or hindrance to the learning process, depending on how they are used in the classroom. If a teacher is looking for ways to incorporate technology into a lesson, he needs to remember that many students are not fond of computers and, therefore, will not be interested in the lesson unless motivational techniques are used to create a situation in which the students will want to learn more about the subject at hand. According to Mayer (2003), this motivation is based on “interest, self-efficacy, and attribution” (p. 459). If a lesson objective is to create a website that displays national pride and encouragement during this time of war in Iraq, the first step the instructor needs to take is to gain the students’ interest in the topic. The instructor can start by asking students what the war is all about and how it affects them personally. Many of the students will probably name friends and/or family who are service men and women stationed in the Middle East. Some may discuss more general concepts and conflicts of the war, such as democracy verses communism, considering freedoms that they would lose if they ever fell under communist rule. Another useful tactic may be to have students interact with students from other areas of our nation and even other nations through online synchronous and/or asynchronous discussions about their views on the war. Guest speakers, such as veterans of previous wars (especially if the presenter is a relative of one of the students), current military personnel, and/or politicians, can also assist in creating or increasing interest of the war efforts among students. Visual, kinesthetic, and auditory aids (using computer presentations) are yet other tools a teacher can use to create an awesome effect on students’ interest. Somehow, though, the instructor must create a legitimate connection between the students and the topic in order for the project to be successful; this connection must be relevant and constructive. “[A]dding interesting but conceptually irrelevant material to an explanation is not a useful way to teach for transfer” (Mayer, 2003, p. 468). Once the appreciation for our nation is apparent in the students’ attitudes and comprehension, they are more apt to succeed in the endeavors of the project, and they are more apt, then, to predict that success. Each student needs a high “self-efficacy” to positively influence his “academic achievement” (Mayer, 2003, p. 470). The second part of the website project should include this technique of motivation. In this part of the lesson, the teacher and students discuss different designs of the website—what content should be placed within it, what they layout of the site should look like, etc. The students can gain this insight by looking at and evaluating similar existing sites. After this class discussion, the students are asked to write down what skills they have that could contribute to this project, such as creative writing skills, communication skills, creative design techniques, web-page design knowledge and/or experience, typing skills, digital imaging skills, Internet researching techniques, etc. Then, in small groups consisting of students with these different strengths, the students can observe each other working diligently at their given skills and can also feel secure about their own abilities. Together, they are a confident group, enthusiastic about producing a well-organized, insightful website displaying their true pride in the U.S.A. Once the students have revealed an interest in the topic and discovered their significant role in the project, they will be more inclined to put forth full effort. Because this project’s goal is to display national pride and encouragement through a website, the teacher can base his evaluation on the students’ effort rather than ability. “[S]tudents who are trained to attribute academic success or failure to effort are more likely to work hard than students who attribute their performance to ability” (Mayer, 2003, p. 476). If the students try their best to create a proud tribute to their country and they fall short of perfection, the teacher should encourage the students by recognizing their growth and potential in future accomplishments. If, however, the students do not put forth full effort, their project evaluation should reflect this truth. In addition, the teacher should never “show sympathy or pity when students fail,” because this reaction may “convey the idea that students lack ability,” causing students to give up more quickly in the future (Mayer, 2003, p. 476). If these three motivational techniques are used properly, the project will be a success. Not only will the website look professional, but the students will feel a sense of achievement and pride in themselves and in their country. And they have a higher chance to “transfer what they have learned to new situations” (Mayer, 2003, p. 458). The experience is a positive one for all involved. Of course, sometimes projects ideas fail, but usually it is because of a flaw in the teacher’s expectations of outcomes or because of improper motivational techniques…not because of students’ lack of skills. References Mayer, Richard E. (2003). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. |
