The Contradictions in the Works of Chrétien de Troyes

Reading the works of Chrétien de Troyes is both tremendously interesting and enormously intriguing. It is interesting in the sense that this writer was the first to compose the Arthurian Romance, and has had a huge literary effect on the writers who have chosen to follow in his footsteps and explore that genre. It is intriguing that at least one of the works he has written is a dramatic departure from his general style and that the women in this piece, The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot), are characterized much differently then the women in his stories are typically characterized. The women in The Knight of Cart (Lancelot), from Guinevere to Maleagant’s sister, have much more power than any of the female characters in Troyes’ other works. By examining the female characters in both the Knight of the Cart and Erec and Enide the disparity between how women are portrayed and the power they yield becomes apparent. These women have power in the sense that they are able to make their own decisions, are able to alter their lives by the choices they make, and moreover, are able to influence the decisions of the men around them. The question then becomes, why is the Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) so different from Chrétien’s other works as far as women are concerned? Why did Chrétien refuse to finish this story? While there is not a good deal of information available about the life of Chrétien de Troyes or why he made the decisions that he did, it is known that Marie de Champagne was his patron when he wrote The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) and that she was responsible for Chrétien creating The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot). This fact may be the key to understanding why this work was so very different, the women were portrayed as people with so much more power than was the norm for Chrétien, and the fact that Chrétien refused to finish this story.

Erec and Enide represents the typical work constructed by Chrétien, and as such can be examined in comparison with The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) as a way to explore the differences between a work that was typical of Chrétien and a work that was obviously influenced by an outside source. As stated by William W. Kibler in the Introduction to Chrétien de Troyes: Arthurian Romances, The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) differs from the typical Chrétien piece greatly in regards to the way love is presented (in his other works he supported marriage and love within marriage), and is basically seen as the anomaly of Chrétien’s work. So, as previously stated, Erec and Enide is the perfect example of the typical Chrétien work. While there may be some people who disagree with this statement, and contend that Enide had more power than most people realize or give her credit for since she is the reason that they embark on their journey together and she greatly influences Erec’s life, this is not atypical of Chrétien’s work. Enide may have some control over Erec, but it is the type of control that is given to women by men, a control that is based on sex, or love, or infatuation rather than on respect, merit, or because there is no other alternative. Enide has some power but operates within the traditional roles for women, in The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) the women operate in a world that didn’t exist when this piece was written. It is a world where control has shifted and women are now able to exist outside the roles that they have traditionally had to play. It is the fact that the women in The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) have been created in a way so that they have control that has classically been seen as something only a male can have that makes this work and the power that these women yield so remarkable. These women, unlike Enide, operate outside the role that women have been forced to play and exist in throughout history. As June Hall McCash pointed out, “It is a world where woman has some control, where, above all, she is depicted as independent, and where her freedom of choice is respected” (15).

The main female figure in The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) is Guinevere, a figure that has caused great controversy throughout literary history as she is alternately vilified and empathized with. In this story, she is portrayed as a woman who manages to be in command of her fate even as the men around her seek to control her. The power she yields in this piece of literature lies in her ability to influence the actions of the men around her, specifically Lancelot, a knight who is revered for his courtly deeds and nobility. After Lancelot finds Guinevere the King asks Guinevere to have Lancelot spare his son Meleagant, already assuming at this point that Lancelot will be the victor of their skirmish. Guinevere then answers, “Good sir, because you request it, I wish it so,’ replied the queen. ‘Even if I felt a mortal hatred for your son, whom I do not love, yet you have served me well; and because it pleases you, I wish Lancelot to restrain himself” (The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot), 254). The narrator responds with the following statement:

These words, which had not been spoken in a whisper, were heard by

Lancelot and Meleagant. One who loves totally is ever obedient, and

willingly and completely does whatever might please his sweetheart. And

so Lancelot, who loved more deeply than Pyramus (if ever a man could

love more deeply), must do her bidding (The Knight of the Cart

(Lancelot), 254).

There are three important and revealing pieces of information that can be garnered from this situation. The first significant piece of information is that the King of the realm that Guinevere is a prisoner of automatically assumes that she has the power to control Lancelot, and that is why he asks her to stop Lancelot from killing his son. It is important to note that it is a King who is begging Guinevere, a woman (and a prisoner besides), to intercede for him with Lancelot. Another aspect of this situation that makes it significant is the narrator’s response to Guinevere’s command. It is worth noticing and mentioning that Lancelot has to listen to Guinevere because he loves her so much, but Enide can plead and beg Erec to forgive her or to trust her and it only makes him respond to her more coldly. This passage is also vital in that it demonstrates, as June McCash points out, “the submission of the lover to the lady, thus placing woman in a previously untraditional role of dominance over man” (14). While I would agree with McCash that Guinevere certainly dominates Lancelot completely, I would argue that the other women in this story influence him rather than dominate him. It is Guinevere alone who is able, because of the tremendous love that Lancelot feels for her, dominate him completely.

This domination is repeatedly demonstrated, but perhaps one of the most powerful instances that it is depicted is when Lancelot and Guinevere consummate their relationship. It is Guinevere who tells Lancelot when and how to come to her at night as is demonstrated in this passage, “The queen indicated a window to him with a glance, not by pointing. ‘Tonight when everyone within is asleep, you can come to speak with me at that window. Make your way first through the orchard” (263). Traditionally a man would be the one arranging the tryst. Then when Lancelot arrives that night, both he and the queen are annoyed that there are bars that separate them. Lancelot boasts that he could get past the bars if she wished him to come to her. The queen doesn’t believe him and then Lancelot says, “

My lady,… don’t worry! I don’t believe that iron could ever stop me.

Nothing but you yourself could keep me from coming in to you. If

you grant me your permission, the way will soon be free; but if you

are unwilling, then the obstacle is so great that I will never be able to

pass (264).

In this passage Lancelot illustrates just how powerful be believes the queen is. Her determination, willpower, and strength of character are stronger than iron, and are the only things that could keep Lancelot from her. June McCash supports this statement saying, “She controls Lancelot utterly. He can and will do anything for her or refrain from anything. When the queen finally grants him an assignation, he tells her that iron bars will not keep him away from her. Only her will can do that” (14). This situation demonstrates that Guinevere dominates Lancelot in every sphere of their relationship.

The characterization of women varies greatly between Erec and Enide and The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot), not only in regards to the power that Guinevere has but also in the way that other characters in The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) are represented. This is extremely strange, as many of the writers from the middle ages have one stance on how women should behave or what that appropriate role for women is and their writing reflects those beliefs. In the Lais of Marie de France, for example, the women who were characterized as “good” were those who were meek, honorable, and deferred to their husbands, as did the wife in the story Eliduc. In the stories of Chrétien de Troyes, however, women have varying degrees of power.

In Erec and Enide, Enide cannot even express to her husband that she feels badly about the fact that people are speaking and thinking ill of him because he hasn’t been performing knightly deeds without him getting extremely angry and forcing her to accompany him on a long, dangerous, and difficult journey. As they leave his holding to begin this journey her commands her thus, “Ride rapidly and take care not to be so reckless, if you see anything at all, to say a single word to me. Mind you do not speak to me unless I speak to you first. Go ahead briskly, in complete confidence.” (Erec and Enide, 71). In this passage Erec speaks to Enide as though she is a dog to be commanded. The way that Erec treats Enide in this passage as well as throughout the story reveals how very little power she has. He speaks of her beauty and nobleness often, and these two characteristics seem to be why he desires her as his wife. She is similar to a trophy wife, as he states that if he wins the contest for the sparrow-hawk then he will take her to be his wife. So basically should he win this competition then she shall be his prize. The fact that Erec commands her to do things as though she has no will or thoughts of her own, the fact that she was relegated to the status of a gift or prize for him, and the fact that he desires her for her beauty and nobility alone; rather than her mind, her love of him, etc all demonstrate how little power or control over her own life Enide has throughout this story. This is in direct contrast to how Gweneviere and several other women are characterized in The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot).

There are a few instances that directly contrast with those previously mentioned in Erec and Enide. For instance, the ladies of the Court hold a tournament to find husbands, and so it appears that once again men are fighting to attain a prize (the women) and so women have once again been relegated to the status of simply being a prize for a man. But in this instance it becomes clear that it is the women who have the power in this situation rather than the men. First of all the men in the competition, with the exception of Lancelot, are competing against each other for the privilege of marrying one of these ladies. The ladies are using this competition to look over the men and decide whether there is anyone who they are interested in. This is a reversal of the more common circumstance in which women are competing or plotting to make men notice them. Then, when Lancelot takes demonstrates his great prowess on the battlefield, these ladies proclaim that, “if they did not marry this knight, they would not take any other lord or husband in this year” (The Knight of the Cart, 281). What this illustrates is that these ladies had the power to make that decision. They were not simply handed over to a man as a prize, rather they inspected the men who wanted to marry them, found them wanting, and decided that they simply would not marry any of those men during the forthcoming year.

Another women in The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) who demonstrates just how powerful she is, is Meleagant’s sister. Although this character is never given a name, she doesn’t need one as her actions during the course of this piece are unforgettable and bold. Lancelot and audiences first meet this woman when she demands the head of the man who confronted Lancelot for believing that he could cross the sword bridge and ultimately lost the fight with Lancelot. Lancelot is torn between cutting off the man’s head as the girl wished or allowing the man some compassion and sparing him. Ultimately he agrees to fight the man again on the condition that if he should win he will immediately decapitate the man for the girl. Lancelot wins and the girl gets her wish. According to June McCash, “Lancelot is forced to choose between a primarily masculine value or the needs and desired of a man and the values, needs, or desires of a woman. In each case, he chooses ultimately in favor of the woman” (14). After examining the story this claim is obviously accurate, as time and time again Lancelot does as he is commanded or asked to act by the aristocratic women who he encounters on his quest.

This girl appears again after Meleagant has managed to have Lancelot imprisoned. This girl finds out that Lancelot has been imprisoned and immediately embarks upon a journey to find him. Having no idea where he is, the girl rides around (not asking for directions of course-obvious clue to role reversal between men and women) until she comes upon the tower that he has been imprisoned in. She frees Lancelot and then nurses him back to health. What is remarkable about this girl is that she is completely independent. She asks Lancelot to kill a man for her, but somehow gives the impression that even should Lancelot refuse to grant her that request she will find a way to ensure the mans death. Then she single-handedly went completely out of her way to save Lancelot because she promised him that because he gave her the man’s head, “You [Lancelot] will be repaid at a time when you most need it” (243). This girl has many qualities that are typically seen as masculine qualities: she is bloodthirsty, completely independent, and seems to be bound by her honor. Therefore, Meleagant’s sister is yet another woman in this story who occupies a role that is typically occupied by men.

After examining The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) and comparing the characterization of women to another Chrétien work, Erec and Enide, it is very apparent that the depiction of women in The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) is atypical of Chrétien’s usual style. As stated earlier, this forces the question of: why? Why is this work so different? The answer that many critics, myself, and in some ways even Chrétien give for this is that the patronage of Marie de Champagne made the difference. According to William W. Kibler, “At Troyes, Chrétien most assuredly was associated with the court of Marie de Champagne, one of the daughters of Eleanor of Aquitaine by her first marriage, to King Louis VII of France” (4). Kibler later points out that many of the aspects of the Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) that are uncharacteristic of Chrétien’s work have been, “attributed to a suggestion by its dedicatee, Marie de Champagne…” (8). The connection between this story and Marie de Champagne was originally made by Chrétien himself. Chrétien begins The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot) with,

Since my lady of Champagne wishes me to begin a romance, I shall do

so most willingly, like one who is entirely at her service in anything he

can undertake in this world….I will say, however, that her command has

more importance in this work than any thought or effort I might put into it….Chrétien begins his book the Knight of the Cart; the subject matter

and meaning are furnished and given him by the countess, and he strives carefully to add nothing but his effort and careful attention (207).

While this passage also contains compliments to Marie de Champagne and could be seen by some as the customary dedication of a work to a patron, in view of the incredible discrepancies between the content of this work and the general themes that are seen throughout Chrétien’s other works, as well as the fact that Marie was a feminist and was responsible for changes in the works of other people that she patroned where the work became more complementary of women combined with the fact that Chrétien declined to finish this work all unite to generate the impression that it is far more likely that Marie de Champagne was largely responsible for this work, specifically, how women are characterized. Both Kibler and McCash have made statements that support this belief. “Chrétien claims in his prologue to The Knight of the Cart that he was given the source material by the Countess Marie (Kibbler, 10). “But Chrétien never completed his romance, an indication perhaps that he was not in sympathy with the theme proposed to him by the Countess” (Kibbler, 14). The agreement by most critics that Marie was a huge influence on this work, the fact that this depicts women with so much more power, and a power that is reserved for men in other Chrétien works, Chrétien’s own dedication, and the fact that he refused to finish this work all indicate that Marie was the driving force behind this story and the characterization of women in this piece.

After reading the work in question, and comparing it to Erec and Enide it becomes clear that Chrétien has departed from his usual style when writing The Knight of the Cart (Lancelot), particularly is his characterization of women, as he has never seemed to have an actual interest in them before now. So then it became necessary to examine why Chrétien might be paying so much attention to his female characters and presenting them in a light that was typical neither by Chrétien nor during the time period that these works were written in. Chrétien makes this easy for readers, as he himself says that Marie de Champagne was responsible for this work. Furthermore, the fact that Chrétien didn’t finish this work, may indicate that he wasn’t thrilled about the story he was being told to write. While very little is actually documented about Chrétien’s life, it is known that he was patronaged by Marie de Champagne, one of the most powerful women of the time period; and many critics agree that she had a huge amount of influence over how the story was told as well as the roles that women would play within the story. After looking at all the evidence that is available I have come to the conclusion that they are right and that Marie de Champagne was a powerful feminist in the 12^th century.