Why are contracts thought to be a behavioral technique?  To answer this question, one must first explore what behaviorism is.  As mentioned in the book Psychology and You, early theories stated that "...our personalities evolve from a series of rewards or punishments" (McMahon and Romano, 2000).  B. F. Skinner felt that we behave the way we do because of the reinforcement - good or bad - that we have received in the past (Charles, 19999).  Thus, he felt that "...humans should turn their efforts to providing conditions that reinforce desired behavior, thus improving human behavior in general" (Charles, 1999).  Another noted expert in the field, Haim Ginott, said, "'The essence of discipline...lies in finding effective alternatives to punishment'" (qtd. in Charles,1999).  Still another expert, John B. Watson felt he could shape a human into anything desired if given "...complete control of (that) person's environment..."  (McMahon and Romano, 2000). 

With these things in mind, one would naturally see that developing a contract with a student might be the best route to take when trying to change a certain behavior.  To explain, behavior contracts are "deals" made between a teacher and a student.  Basically stated, if the student performs a desired action, he/she will get something in return.  These contracts are made to look very legal and official to let the student know it is important.  Many times, the contracts are signed not only by the teacher and the student but also by the principal and sometimes the student's parents (Charles, 1999). 

Behavior contracts promote several positive things.  For example, Ginott's theory of  "correcting by directing" (Charles, 1999) hinges on redirecting the student's behavior patterns to more acceptable ones.  Contracts do just that.  Ginott also felt that successful discipline happens when the student learns self-discipline (Charles, 1999).  Students' self-discipline happens when teachers build trust and mutual respect with their students.  If the student trusts the teacher, he/she will most likely cooperate if problems arise.  Also, so many times, students feel like they have no control over what happens.  With a behavior contract, the student can feel like he/she has a more active role in his/her own education.  Contracts take the "bossing" (as Ginott put it) out of discipline and promote mutual respect and understanding (Charles, 1999), hence, producing better behavior. 

Finally, creating behavior contracts express to the students a sense of confidence.  When people in authority write certain terms into the contract, that alone is an expression of faith in the child's ability to achieve success.  However, probably more important at the time to the student would be the fact that the teacher is more obligated to come through with his/her end of the bargain if the specified conditions are met.  This gives the student a feeling of partial control over and ownership of the outcomes of his or her behavior (Charles, 1999). 

Obviously, some people feel that contracts are simply bribery.  Beliefs are that the student will not actually change a certain behavior.  Furthermore, it has been stated that behavior contracts are "...counterproductive in that they reduce intrinsic motivation..." (Charles, 1999).  In other words, kids behave simply to get the stickers, free time, extra points, or whatever else has been promised as part of the contract and not in order to better themselves.  To contradict that, the book Cognitive Psychology and Instruction quotes Skinner as saying that "... standardizing learning environments and carefully specifying behavioral goals (i.e. contracts) were shown to be very useful for treating a wide range of problems" (qtd. in Bruning et al, 1999). 

As for my own thoughts on behavior contracts, I truthfully do not have much experience with them.  However, I  was once asked by my principal to create a contract for a student who seldom completed his assignments.  While he was not the traditional disciplinary problem, he did ignore the classroom rules of completing work and staying alert during class.  Because he was a high school student (junior), we did not offer him any tangible rewards.  Instead, we used an approach which is closer to assertive discipline.  We told him of the privileges he would lose if he did not comply.  In retrospect, while the contract was successful, it obviously did not follow the outline of what a contract should consist of according to the experts quoted above. 

In conclusion, I feel that contracts are a successful behavioral modification technique.  If written and handled correctly, they can be a positive way to encourage a student to realize his/her potential in a given class. 

REFERENCES 

Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw, and Royce R. Ronning. Cognitive Psychology  and Instruction. Third Edition.  Columbus: Prentice-Hall, 1999. 

Charles, C. M. Building Classroom Discipline. Sixth Edition. New York: Longman, 1999. 

McMahon, Judith W. and Tony Romano. Psychology and You. Third Edition. Cincinnati:  West Educational, 2000.

There are several different discipline plans available to teachers.  Obviously, each has its own ideas as to what the best methods are when trying to control classroom behavior. Lee and Marlene Canter's plan for Assertive Discipline competes somewhat with Richard Curwin and Allen Mender's plan of Discipline with Dignity. 

Usually, most classroom teachers are required or encouraged to follow a district approved plan for consistency's sake.  In my district, teachers are encouraged to follow the format of assertive discipline, modeled after Lee and Marlene Canter's plan. 
This plan is effective for both teachers and students but is not without its critics. 

To begin, assertive discipline appeals to teachers for many reasons.  The main attraction to this plan is that it recognizes the rights of the teachers as well as the students.   As C. M. Charles wrote in the book Building Classroom Discipline, "A great many
teachers are very enthusiastic about Assertive Discipline because it helps them deal with students positively and teach with little interruption" (Charles, 1999). Many times, only the rights of the students are considered; however, the Canters' plan directs attention to "...the rights of the teacher to teach without disruption"  (Charles, 1999). 

Likewise, the assertive discipline plan appeals to students.  The Canters' plan states that students have the right "...to have teachers who help them learn in a calm, safe environment..."  (Charles, 1999).  It is also a commonly accepted fact that adolescents need and want rules to help them behave in an acceptable manner (Charles, 1999).  Teachers know this and so do the students themselves.  With this in mind, it is suggested that there should be a few basic classroom rules, 3-5 according to the Canters (Charles, 1999). 

The Canters' main point when encouraging assertive discipline is producing a "... classroom climate in which needs are met, behavior is managed humanely, and learning occurs as intended" (Charles, 1999).  Considering both the teacher's rights and the
students' rights promotes a better classroom climate. When assertive discipline is used, most needs are met.  If a mutual respect is established early, discipline problems are few, and teachers can do their jobs. 

As mentioned before, there are several discipline plans from which to choose.  Obviously, then, there are bound to be critics who feel they have a better plan than Assertive Discipline.  For example, Curwin and Mendler contradict Assertive Discipline in several ways.  Their main focus is s that student dignity should be the number one priority in the classroom.  To emphasize this, Curwin and Mendler state that "The professional always looks for ways to help the client" (Charles, 1999). They believe that "Consequences should ...always protect and maintain the student's dignity (Charles, 1999). While dignity is important, I feel it is our job as teachers to provide the best 
atmosphere for learning.  Because the purpose of public schools is to educate as many students as possible in the time allotted, teachers must be able to create a learning atmosphere, even if it means having to correct or to remove a student during a class period.  Assertive discipline realizes this fact and allows for it. 

Another difference is that their plan calls for different consequences for different students.  In Building Classroom  Discipline, it is stated that teachers and administrators should "... select and apply... the consequence that best fits the situation" (Charles, 1999).  Curwin and Mendler also say it is fair to treat misbehavior on a case-by-case basis, even if it is commonly seen as unequal or unfair by parents or others (Charles, 1999).  According to this plan, "Rather than having one set of rules and consequences, the teacher would evaluate each circumstance individually and decide a punishment or reward" (Kaster 2001).  In other words, if two students ignore the identical regulation, there is no guarantee that they would receive the same consequence (Clark 2001). 

I strongly disagree with this.  I believe that if you do the crime, you do the time, so to speak.  Obviously, though, there may be varying degrees of involvement and/or severity of disobedience, which should be considered when assigning the consequences.  However, these consequences should be spelled out early in the year so everyone knows what to expect and should not be compromised if possible. 

Curwin and Mendler criticized the Canters' assertive discipline in other ways also.  They felt that rewards given for good  behavior only lead the students to obeying and not to being responsible for their actions (Charles, 1999).  However, rewards encourage students to understand that when one does what is expected, most often, good things happen.  That is a concept that is realized throughout their lives.  In elementary school, their reward might be candy and in secondary school it may be good grades.  However, in adulthood the reward for a good performance may be a raise in salary or a promotion. 
Incentives are a fact of life. 

In conclusion, the strengths of Assertive Discipline far outweigh any weaknesses its critics bring forth.  As written in Building Classroom Discipline, an assertive discipline plan is useful because of the "... ease of implementation, meeting teachers' and students' needs, teaching students how to behave responsibly, and insistence on support from administrators and parents" (Charles, 1999).  Teachers need this sort of plan in order to do their job:  mass education without being distracted (Charles, 1999).  As author C. M. Charles stated, "Perhaps most telling is the continued widespread popularity of Assertive Discipline . . ." (Charles, 1999).  It provides for the needs of everyone in the classroom where Curwin and Mendler's plan is concerned mainly with the rights of the misbehaving students. Personally, I am very satisfied with my experiences with Assertive 
Discipline.  It works! 

REFERENCES 

Charles, C. M. (1999). Building Classroom Discipline. Sixth Edition. New York: Longman. 

Clark, Kena.  Lesson 2 Question 1: Assertive Discipline. Retrieved September 25, 2001, from the  World Wide Web.  <http://courseinfo.cet.uiuc.edu:80/bin/common/course.pl?course_id=_1519_1&frame=top>. 

Kastor, Ginger. Lesson 2 Question 1. Retrieved September 15, 2001, from the World Wide Web.  <http://courseinfo.cet.uiuc.edu:80/bin/common/course.pl?course_id=_1519_1&frame=top>.

The concept of punishment in educational settings has been discussed for years.  As with other issues, educators cannot seem to fully agree on the best way to discipline students in different situations.  Because this is a popular subject in the field of education, many experts have written articles and books as well as given lectures on discipline and punishment.  Interestingly enough, according to Barbara Coloroso, most kids do not understand that what they do or do not do brings the punishment.  They think it mainly depends on the mood of the teacher at the time of the action (Charles, 1999).  Another expert supports this general idea.  When discussing his experiences as a student who received physical punishment, Jerry Mills, quoting Tom Falin in his lecture on October 5, 2001, said, "' Ninety percent of physical pain (punishment) that children endure is an adult temper tantrum'" (qtd. in Mills lecture). 

Many theorist believe there is NO room in the classroom for punishment.  In fact, Rudolf Dreikurs believes that effective discipline "...makes no use of punishment" (Charles, 1999).  He also states that knowing what to do in a given circumstance is the
way to produce good discipline; however, I feel this is obvious!  Furthermore, Dreikurs promotes the idea that there must be a "...respect for orderly processes and for recognizing that actions lead to natural or logical consequences..." in order for there to be
discipline in the classroom.  With this I agree.  Dreikurs teaches that kids need to feel like they identify and can contribute to the class.  According to Dreikurs, this is the best way to "...smooth, productive functioning in schools..." (Charles, 1999).  Agreed! 
However, how does one get to that place? 

According to B. F. Skinner, positive reinforcement is the key to producing desired behaviors.  Skinner believed that people "...work harder and learn more quickly when rewarded for doing something right than when punished for doing something wrong" (Charles, 1999).  He, at least, gave several ideas as to how to implement this idea, and most of what he offered makes sense.  For instance, he promoted a reward system that actually allows for many different types of reinforcements (Charles, 1999). 

His system is divided into four kinds of reinforcement: tangible, activity, graphic, and social. To begin, tangible reinforcers are rewards like certificates, pens, posters, or candy, given to conform students. These types of rewards are often implemented for the "... students who have special behavior problems" (Charles, 1999). Another avenue to take, according to Skinner, is to offer students a deal.  For instance, if they behave themselves, they may study wit a friend or take time to work on something they want to rather than the given assignment.  This is called an activity reinforcer (Charles, 1999). A third way to promote good behavior is to do it graphically.  Skinner felt that a teacher could use charts with stickers, checks, or smiling faces in order to encourage the desired classroom behavior.  According to Skinner, social reinforcers also help to encourage good behavior.  This type of reinforcement includes "...comments, gestures, facial expressions, and verbal expressions" (Charles, 1999). 

While strongly believing in influencing students using positive reinforcement, Skinner did recognize that it may not work in every instance.  As presented in C. M. Charles's book Building Classroom Discipline, Skinner believed, "Teachers are advised to use a positive approach instead (of punishment) and to resort to punishment only when everything else fails" (Charles, 1999).  He stressed that punishment should be the last resort. Skinner would prefer that teachers recognize the students when they behave appropriately.  That's why he stressed that teachers should use the "Catch 'Em Being Good" method, offering the incentives mentioned earlier (Charles, 1999). 

Faced with this issue, I interviewed several teachers about their discipline practices.  First, I spoke wit a freshman math teacher, Jim Lawrence, from a southern Illinois school district.  He mentioned first and foremost, he tries to make positive
comments as much as possible to any student with known behavior problems, stating this is one of the most effective techniques he uses.  Obviously, this supports Skinner's theory of "Catch 'Em Being Good."  Lawrence feels this helps to prevent some of the minor problems that would likely arise later.  However, realizing that this does not work 100% of the time, he feels another very effective technique is a brief conference, either in the hallway or after class, with the misbehaving student.  Other techniques he uses to encourage proper behavior would be certain looks (at the beginning of the problem) and detention (as one of the last things used).  Finally, I asked if he thought the use of humor or sarcasm would be effective in  controlling a situation.  He emphatically answered no, stating, "'It gives them (the misbehaving students) a chance to show off, smart back, and challenge me" (Lawrence interview).  This comment echoes Barbara Coloroso's ideas.  When speaking of punishment, she states, "...treatment that is psychologically hurtful and unjust to students (like sarcasm) is likely to provoke anger, resentment and additional conflict..." (Charles, 1999).

Next, I interviewed a third grade teacher, Mary Miller, who teaches in a central Illinois district.  She spoke of two techniques that she feels are extremely effective, both of which use aversive stimuli.  One such method she uses is a series of warnings before the final punishment of recess detention is employed.  To explain, she uses a color-coded system (laminated, small, colored circles).  To implement this, if she notices a student misbehaving, without disrupting her lecture or the other students, she quietly walks by him/her and places a yellow circle on his/her desk.  This counts as a warning.  If the behavior ceases, the student receives no punishment.  However, if the misbehavior continues, again, she quietly walks by the student's desk  and replaces the yellow circle with a red one, meaning the student receives a five minute recess detention.  If the misbehavior persists, she again walks by the desk and replaces the red circle with a black one, which signals a full recess detention.  Every action taken is devoid of anger and frustration.  She states, "'I'm not mad; I show an expression which conveys, 'This was your choice, not mine'" (Miller interview). 

At this point, if the student remains adamant about the situation, she tries to isolate the student from the rest of the students in her class.  She places the student in a spot in the room where the other students cannot see him perform, yet he/she can still
hear the instruction.  This visual separation from his/her classmates seems to be most effective for her.  Obviously, if all else fails,  she calls in reinforcements by involving the student's parents as well as her administration (Miller interview). 

Finally, I examined my own techniques.  I found that I tend to lean toward Skinner's way of thinking.  I like to catch my students doing the right thing instead of dwelling on the negative incidents.  I like to greet my students as they walk in my classroom door before the class begins.  This gives me a chance to build a good rapport with each student, giving each one a bit of individual attention.  I also try to get to know my students outside the classroom.  I let them see my interest in them as a person, not just as a part of my job.  In agreement with Mr. Lawrence, this seems to prevent potential misbehavior. 

However, contrary to Mr. Lawrence, I do believe the use of humor can be effective if done without humiliating the students.  For example, periodically my students are required to read silently from classic novels during class.  Occasionally, some students might be a bit slow in getting started on this assignment, talking to friends instead of reading.  When this happens, I say,   "Since I always assume the best of my students, I assume the noise I hear is students reading aloud or discussing their  novels. 
However, it's time to read silently now instead of reading aloud."  At this point, I receive  several smiles from my students, which I return, and then they get back on task.  The reason this works for me is because I have already established a mutual respect with my students.  While they know who is in charge, they also realize that I value them as people and am working for them, not against them. 

                        Obviously, this paints a pretty picture, and, honestly, it is "pretty" most of the time.  However, ever Skinner acknowledged that there comes a time when "...all else fails" (Charles, 1999).  If my  positive approach is ineffective, I try some of the same
methods as Mr. Lawrence does which were mentioned earlier.  I try to get the student to change disruptive behavior by looking his/her way first.  If that does not work, I will make a general comment about staying on task.  If that does not create a change, I
resort to removing the offending student from the classroom. 

Shortly after the removal and if the opportunity presents itself, I try to speak to him/her in the hallway. Initially, I make sure I am at eye level with the student.  Then, I ask the student if he/she is having an "off" day.  Showing individual concern, especially after a disturbance, seems to defuse any hostility the student may harbor at this time.  After I show concern for the student, I look him/her in the eye and calmly explain my position.  I let the student know that his/her behavior was interrupting my job of creating a learning environment for everyone in the class.  I also convey that this is not personal but professional.  Normally, he/she understands my position and realizes I took the needed steps, considering everyone involved.  Depending upon the severity of the action, the student, at this point, normally understands whatever consequences are placed upon him/her also.  If, by chance, the brief conference is ineffective, a conference with the administration is requested.  The consequences, at this point, could range from detention, behavior contracts, suspension, and/or removal from my class.  However, every effort is made to resolve the conflict without involving the administration. 

Also, my students are clearly informed of the consequences for minor offenses.  For example, I follow the school rule of giving an office detention for the third tardy to my class.  This is effective in keeping a given student from receiving the third tardy, but the student does not seem to care if he/she is tardy the first two times.  Other techniques I use to modify behavior include giving zeroes for incomplete, inappropriate, and/or missing work and taking points off at the end of a quarter for lack of participation and/or poor listening.  As expected, these methods are effective for some but not for others. 

In conclusion, it is crucial to find effective ways to deal with misbehavior.  If a teacher picks an inappropriate technique, an uncomfortable situation could turn into a volatile one!  Unfortunately, when students are faced with reprimands, Coloroso believes, "Students typically respond ... with the 'three F's' -- fear, fighting back, and fleeing, either into themselves or out the door" (Charles, 1999).  Skinner's thoughts support this because he felt, "Punishment can promote motivation and proper behavior, but often produces highly undesirable side effects of fear, dislike, and desire for revenge" (Charles, 1999).  With this in mind, educators understand that the correct response to misbehavior is essential in order to produce the desired learning environment. 

REFERENCES 

Charles, C. M. (1999). Building Classroom Discipline. Sixth Edition. New York: Longman. 

Lawrence, Jim.  Personal Interview. October 7, 2001. 

Miller, Mary. Personal Interview. October 7, 2001. 

Mills, Jerry. Don't Doubt the Dream. Presentation/Lecture. October 5, 2001.

All teachers realize that good discipline is needed in order to create a good learning environment.  Many experts agree.  Ronald Epps, superintendent of Richland District 1 in South Carolina, was quoted in Metro, saying, "'One of the first things you
have to address in any environment ... is to ensure that there is an environment ... that is conducive to learning'" (qtd. in York, 2001).  Agreeing, Jacob Kounin believes that the better the instruction is the fewer behavior problems a teacher will have. Likewise, Fredric Jones, a leading expert in the field, feels, "The goal of discipline is for students to assume responsibility for their actions" (Charles, 1999). 

To begin, Jacob Kounin based most of his ideas on the simple fact that better instruction leads to fewer behavior problems.  In other words, if teachers are organized and plan lessons that engage the students, they will be less likely to have to deal with misbehavior.  I agree with this as I believe every professional would. 

Much of Kounin's ideas is common sense.  For example, he believes a big part of minimizing misbehavior is for the teacher to create momentum and possess smoothness in each lesson.  To explain, he feels the teacher should begin with the bell, keep the lesson flowing without sudden changes or interruptions, and finally close the lesson in a logical manner (Charles, 1999). 

In order to make this happen, Kounin feels teachers should start by "alerting" the students.  To do this, they need to get the students' attention, briefly directing them as to what is expected of them during the lesson.  Basically, Kounin says it is important to
have a catchy introduction to the lesson (Charles, 1999). 

Another important concept in behavior management is "...attending to two or more issue at the same time" (Charles,1999). This is called overlapping and comes into play mainly when the students are working in groups. Simply put, it is having the ability to help two students or groups at once, keeping both on task in order to minimize any misbehavior (Charles, 1999). 

While working in a small group or a large one, it is vital that each member of a group has a role to play in the success of the group.  This will ensure that all students are accountable for the material being covered.  "By accountability, Kounin meant holding each student in the group responsible for active involvement in learning the facts, concepts, or procedure being taught" (Charles, 1999).  For example, to ensure that every student is accountable for the material, frequently, I have all students write down answers to questions posed throughout a lesson. Following this, I have a class discussion on the given subject at which time the students offer their answers as part of the discussion.  This technique is actually suggested by Kounin in C. M. Charles's book Building Classroom Discipline (Charles, 1999). 

Continuing, avoiding satiation is another point Kounin makes.  Students become bored when teachers overdo lectures on any given subject.  As all professionals know, boredom creates opportunities for misbehavior to occur (Charles, 1999). 

Instead, students need to be challenged in order to hold their interests.  Lectures are helpful to a point, but teachers need to be mindful of this problem of satiation.  They need to vary their approach to hold student interest.  This can be done in several ways: group work, reading, skills practice, games, and worksheets. Also, the teacher needs to show excitement about the lesson. If that happens, students are more inclined to be excited about it.  Finally, students need to be challenged in order to fight boredom (Charles, 1999). 

Obviously, these are great ways to prevent misbehavior.  However, professionals know that even good techniques don't work 100% of the time.  Therefore, Kounin gives tips on how to combat misbehavior.  When speaking of monitoring a classroom
full of students, he speaks of having "eyes in the back of your head."  Basically, this means teachers should know thoroughly, what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times.  I became seasoned at this technique while teaching in an inner city gang school
from 1987-1995.  Kounin calls this technique "withitness" (Charles, 1999).  According to Kounin, "Withitness depends on students' being convinced that the teacher does in fact know what is occurring everywhere in the classroom" (Charles, 1999). 

The success of this technique depends on several factors.  For example, when more than one problem happens at once, the teacher should take care of the worst offense first.  Sometimes, too, it is good to be mindful of the student who is being corrected, having a feel for the response that will follow each correction given.  Likewise, it is always helpful to pick the best time to intervene so the misbehavior doesn't escalate or spread (Charles, 1999).  In addition, the teacher should be aware of the "Ripple Effect."  That is, when a teacher corrects one student, others see this and most likely will conform (Charles, 1999). 

Fredric Jones focused his research on the actions of teachers after the misbehavior began.  During this research, Jones found that some sort of misbehavior happened every two minutes in a well-managed classroom.  In an unruly classroom, someone misbehaved every two and one half minutes (Charles, 1999).  Therefore, according to Jones, "On the average, teachers in typical classrooms lose approximately 50 percent of their teaching time because students are off task or otherwise disrupting learning" (Charles, 1999). 

According to Jones, if the students had self-control, they would behave appropriately (Charles, 1999).  In order to guide the students to this, Jones stated that "Teachers set limits on student behavior...through subtle interpersonal skills...which convey that the teacher means business" (Charles, 1999).  The key words here are "subtle, interpersonal skills."  One of the biggest mistakes a teacher can make is to invite confrontation by strongly verbalizing his/her disapproval (Charles, 1999). 

With this in mind, Jones realized one of the hardest things to do in a tense situation is "'...to do nothing...'" (qtd. in Charles, 1999).  Instead of commenting, Jones said body language would be more effective (90% more effective) when trying to discipline misbehaving students (Charles, 1999).  Certain looks and mannerisms as well as simply standing in their general area act as a roadblock to misbehaving students (Charles, 1999). Also, body language can convey the teacher's desires as well as "...show that the teacher is calmly in control" (Charles, 1999).  Teachers show this control by inhaling slowly and deeply before acting (Charles, 1999). 

To continue, most people are uneasy when it comes to eye contact.  If a teacher looks directly into a student's eyes, he/she is conveying control over the situation.  Even if the student looks away, he/she is still acutely aware of the teacher's disapproval and control (Charles, 1999).  Eye contact also stops the actions of those students who are close to going off- task.  Like Kounin's "Ripple Effect", all the students in the vicinity of the offending student get a quick lesson as to who is in charge.  Obviously, this can be very effective for the teacher to use.  I have used it quite often, and it works very well. 

As mentioned, most of the time, the teacher doesn't have to say a word to a misbehaving student.  If a student notices the teacher approaching or standing near, he/she is less likely to begin or continue his/her misbehavior (Charles, 1999).  Equally important, the teacher must carry herself/himself with sureness.  Pupils can see quickly whether the teacher feels confident and in control simply by watching the teacher's posture.  Not surprisingly, good posture conveys confidence, control, and good leadership (Charles, 1999). 

As far as facial expressions are concerned, Jones felt teachers should show positive as well as negative reactions to events.  For instance, winks and smiles show approval and humor.  On the other hand, frowns show disapproval (Charles, 1999).  In my opinion, facial expressions are crucial when conveying messages to students. 

Personally, I have used several of these techniques with great success.  Without hesitation, I use eye contact to defuse a situation; however, I wouldn't go so far as to say that I give "The Stare" as mentioned on the list of limit-setting techniques in Thomas H. Allen's article entitled Developing a Discipline Plan for You (Allen, 1996).  As mentioned earlier, I use and believe in how the proximity of the teacher can affect student behavior.  However, I don't hover over them constantly.  I don't want to fall into what Jones calls the "dependency syndrome" when students only work because the teacher is near. (Charles, 1999).  I have also had success with calming gestures (Allen, 1996).  For example, I have gently put my hands up with my palms facing the student in question as if to say, "Take it easy," without actually verbalizing anything.  Finally, I have tried to model the expected behavior (Allen, 1996).  For the most part, I extend to my students the same courtesies that I expect from them.  We have a mutual respect which helps immensely with classroom discipline. 

Although these limit-setting techniques have been proven to work, "Jones...said teachers don't often receive the training they need to manage their classrooms effectively and, consequently, reduce their stress" (York, 2001).  This could be because there are some critics of this system. 

While limit setting is a good technique to use, there are some situations where it may actually cause more problems than it solves.  For example, some students absolutely hate to be touched or approached.  If a teacher draws near and places her/his hand on the student's book, desk, or person, the teacher could actually create a volatile situation.  Likewise, if a teacher gives a disapproving look to a student who has self-esteem issues, he/she could end up creating more problems between them.  The student may now believe the teacher is "...just like everyone else" who thinks the student is "worthless". 

While I agree with several of Jones's ideas, I consciously do not use some of the techniques that he advocates.  As mentioned above, I do not touch a student's book, desk, or person.  To me, that seems to disrespect their person, which is something I try to avoid doing.  Other overt actions which I refuse to do are tapping on my desk and flashing the lights off and on (Allen, 1996).  That may be effective for younger grades. However, I teach juniors and seniors, so I feel those actions would be received as ridiculous. In turn, the students would lose a bit of respect for me. 

REFERENCES:
Allen, Thomas H. "Developing a Discipline Plan for You." Optional Elements of a Discipline  Plan.  Retrieved October 9, 2001, from the World Wide Web. < http://www.humboldt.edu/~tha1/discip-options.html> . 

Charles, C. M. (1999). Building Classroom Discipline. Sixth Edition. New York: Longman. 

York, Karen E. "Richland 1 Teachers Learn Art of Preventive Discipline." Metro (Columbia,  SC). 21 Feb. 2001:Sect. B. Retrieved October 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web. < http://courseinfo.cet.uiuc.edu/bin/common/
course.pl?course_id=_1519_1&frame=top> .

To begin, there are three stages of the memory process: acquisition (receiving stimuli), storage (processing and placing information into long-term memory - encoding), and retrieval (accessing information in long-term memory and bringing it to short-term memory for usage) (Bruning, et al,1999). 

Initially, the concepts of short-term memory and long-term memory seemed like an easy topic for me.  I thought, I am always forgetting something; it should be easy for me to come up with examples that illustrate problems with these concepts.  However, when it came time to actually report on this, I drew a blank!  I seriously could not think of a single time I forgot something either due to information overload or encoding/retrieval problems.  I guess I just "forgot" those times.  (OOPS- that might be an example in and of itself!) 

Anyway, I decided to go to the people who would not forget anything I might have messed up - the kids!  So, I, being a softball coach, simply asked my players if they could remember any instances that proved that I have struggled with short-term or
long-term memory.  What was I thinking?  Needless to say, they "reminded" me of several things about which I can now write. In fact, I had to stop them so I could begin this paper. However, I have news for them; I have remembered some stories about
them as well.  So, I now have several examples - so many, in fact, that they all cannot possibly be covered in this space.  Consequently, I have decided to focus on a few of the ones that occurred on the softball field. 

Information overload happens to everyone daily.  It can happen anywhere at anytime.  I, like everyone else, have problems with information overload in short-term memory. Being a softball coach, I experience this constantly. 

For instance, as a coach, I am required to attend a pre-game conference with the umpires and the opposing team's coach. At this meeting, I am supposed to hand everyone a copy of my starting line-up.  One time, on my way to the meeting (with my line-up in hand), my pitcher stopped to ask a question about one of the signals.  So, I put the line-up down and showed her the  signal.  As I finished with her, my center fielder needed a bandage, so I pointed to the medicine kit.  Next, my catcher asked me to fix her helmet.  With the helmet in hand, I walked out of the dugout and toward home plate, the meeting place where the others were waiting for me.  I handed the fixed helmet to my catcher and jogged out to the meeting. 

Okay - what's wrong with this picture?  That's right - I did not have my line-up with me.  So, I went back to the dugout and searched frantically for it.  It was not where I usually put it; so, at this point, I was getting frustrated.  All the while, I was worrying because I now was holding up the meeting as well as the start of the game.  So, then I was worried about the umpires getting upset with me, and no coach wants that, especially BEFORE a game!   Everything was getting in the way of finding the line-up card!  Finally, I found the line-up on the ledge in the dugout and went back to the meeting. 

Why did all this happen?  Simply put, I had so many interruptions on my initial trip to the meeting that I forgot where I put my line up.  This is obviously stimuli overload! 

To continue, information overload happens to the players as well.  An example of this is when I give them signals during a game.  When giving offensive signals, I must give several at one time in order to signal the runner, the batter, and the first base coach.  I also throw in some bogus gestures to mislead the defense and/or cover up the real signals.  Unfortunately, when I give several in a row, my own players are misled.  I have realized that they look at the signals for only five seconds or less and simply cannot store all the requests from beginning to end.  In other words, by the end of the signals, they have forgotten the first one.  So, I usually put the misleading ones at the beginning of the sequence and the real ones at the end.  Since they can only store five to seven stimuli in short-term memory, this helps them remember the most important ones (Bruning, et al, 1999). 

Research has found that older students can handle more stimuli than younger ones.  It has also been stated that older kids are more aware of their thinking skills than younger ones are, so the older ones often try to improve or organize their thoughts
more so than younger kids (Bruning, et al, 1999). 

So, how does this information affect MY life?  Every fall and spring, I see the idea of age playing a big part of memory and learning.  For example, I coach softball at both the junior high level as well as the high school level.  Constantly, I modify the amount of information I give my players according to age and their abilities to learn and remember.  For instance, when teaching signals to the offense, I present only one or two per session to my junior high players while the high school players receive four or
five per session.  This is done to compensate for their abilities to remember stimuli. 

Without a doubt, the players attach meanings to the signals.  Obviously, they try to learn what gesture signals what desired response (i.e.. touching my hat means batter should bunt).  However, most of the players will internalize the signals, asking themselves, "Which of these signals am I most likely going to be called on to perform?"  Attaching "extra" meaning to certain signals allows them to remember them with better success. 

However, while placing extra importance on certain signals, they tend to neglect learning the entire list of signals.  For example, my #4 hitter, the "clean up batter," is a six-foot tall, very muscular, very slow player who can hit the ball to the fence or over it if the right pitch comes in.  Therefore, she knows the hit and run signal as well as some of the other hitting signals.  Ninety-nine percent of the time, she will NOT receive the bunt signal.  However, in a certain situation during a game, I gave her the bunt signal to confuse the defense.  This is where the problem came in.  She had seen the but signal before but put little or no emphasis on it because she was a power hitter and very seldom received the bunt signal.  Obviously, at this point, she was confused, asked for a time out, and came to me for clarification.  At this point, the "surprise" bunt was no longer a surprise, so I had to alter the plan.  This example proves that if special meaning is not attached to stimuli when received, the stimuli is lost and obviously will not be able to be retrieved from the long-term memory.  Therefore, this shows an encoding/retrieval problem. 

I have also had my problems with encoding and retrieving information.  Again, I turn to the game of softball to illustrate.  When I began coaching seven years ago, I did not know a whole lot about pitching. On my journey to become more knowledgeable on this subject, I attended several workshops and clinics. I have now become somewhat proficient at teaching and maintaining the skills of pitching. 

Early in my career, however, there was one technique, the stride, which, hands down, took the longest for me to learn.  For some reason, I could not remember if a long stride made the pitched ball travel high or low.  Every camp I attended had in formation about the stride and how it can be a quick fix for a pitcher's game time problems. 

Apparently, though, I did not encode the information sufficiently because when I tried to retrieve it, it was not available.  I can remember calling to my pitcher from the dugout to shorten her stride when, in fact, she needed to do the opposite to fix her immediate problem.  She know it; the fans knew it, and the other team (our rivals) knew it!  My long-term memory had failed because of encoding problems.  Unfortunately, I could not retrieve the correct information when I needed it, and I looked
incompetent because of it. 

Finally, I attended the National Fastpitch Coaches Association's clinic.  There, I focused on learning pitching drills and
kills.  For some reason (probably pride), this is where the "light bulb" went on for me.  I used association to clearly understand
the stride: a short stride produces a short (in height) pitch.  I will now know that forever.  I found an encoding method and can
now quickly retrieve the information in the same manner. 

In closing, although I have several additional stories I could tell (thanks to my softball players), I am satisfied that the point has been made.  It is important to realize that perception takes time.  One must allow enough time so others can process the stimuli.  Problems with short-term memory arise because "...a stimulus could stop being available before a meaning (is) assigned" Bruning, et al, 1999).  For example, if I quickly give the signals and then stop before the players understand what I want, there will be problems with the play.  On the other hand, if sufficient time is given to receive and process the stimuli, the chances of remembering the information are great. 

Also, long-term memory is affected greatly by the process of encoding.  If something like an interruption or a time restraint blocks the stimulus before encoding is performed, retrieval will be nearly impossible. However, concentration and association help encoding tremendously. 

Obviously, if retrieval is the desired outcome, one must first allow the time it takes to properly process the given information. If not, forgetfulness happens.  Unfortunately, I think I revisit that concept daily.   However, do I do this consciously or
not?  I don't know; I can't remember! 

REFERENCES 

Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw, and Royce R. Ronning.  (1999). Cognitive and Instruction. Third Edition.  Columbus: Prentice-Hall. 

Personal Experiences. Coaching. Cumberland District #77. 1996-2001. 
 

"Procedural knowledge...is 'knowing how' to perform certain activities" (Bruning, et al, 1999).  In the teaching and coaching professions, there are several different situations where there is a need for procedural knowledge.  Learning procedure can be quite important to the smooth running of a classroom.  Likewise, learning how to perform a task on the softball field is not only important for success but also could be a safety issue. 

To begin, there are several procedures that are taught in my classroom.  One, in particular, is the way students put a heading on their assignments.  For this example, I will explain the procedure for my English IIIA class, which follows the Communication 2000 curriculum. 

Within this curriculum there are several modules, or workbooks, that guide the students through several lessons in practical, business English. Because there are several modules used and several lessons within each module, it is important that the students  denote from which module and lesson their current assignment was completed.  Therefore, I teach them a procedure to avoid any confusion when recording the grades for such assignments.  To explain, the students are to write their names (first and last) in the upper right hand corner of their paper.  Next, for the second line of the heading, the students write the number of the module, the number of the lesson, and the page number.  These numbers are separated by hyphens.  So, if a student writes 14-3-31 on the second line, I know he/she has done the assignment found in Module 14, Lesson 3, on page 31.  Next, they are to put the date on the third line of the heading, another clarification technique for recording purposes.  Finally, they are required to put the class period on the last line of the heading. 

At first, the students continually forget one step or another of this procedure.  However, with constant practice (and several points taken off for incorrect headings), they soon learn the procedure.  This stage of procedural knowledge is called the associative stage (Anderson, Tom, 2001).  Soon, after countless assignments, this procedure becomes a habit.  At this point, the autonomous stage of procedural knowledge has been reached ( Anderson, Tom, 2001).  According to Bruning, et al, "...procedural knowledge often is 'automatized'; we often do things without any conscious attention to what we are doing or why we are doing it" (Bruning, 1999).  That statement describes the robotic way the English IIIA students place the heading on their assignments now. 
 
 

As in the classroom, there are several procedures, or tasks, that are taught on the softball field.  To teach a procedure, I often use the process explained in The Knowledge in Knowledge Management (KM) written by Fred Nickols.  Nickols listed a process of procedural knowledge that gets its start from declarative knowledge.  Here is the procedure as he listed it: 
 
 

For an example, I will use the skill of bunting a softball.  Obviously, bunting is a skill that must be taught, practiced, and mastered in order to achieve success in the game of softball.  There are several steps to the procedure.  IF any step is not properly performed, THEN the batter will fail to bunt the ball correctly, putting the base runner at risk of being thrown out or putting herself at risk of injury. 

To explain, when attempting to bunt, the batter must pivot on the balls of her feet and position the bat in front of home plate, covering all the corners of the plate with the barrel of the bat.  At the same time, she must slide her top hand (right hand for a right-handed batter or left hand for a left-handed batter) up the bat's handle while keeping the fingers of that hand behind the bat.  As she contacts the ball, her top hand must not drop below her bottom hand.  In other words, the bat head must be higher than the handle, not flat or dropped, at the time of contact.  IF this step is not done correctly, THEN several things can go wrong.  Most importantly, IF the bat head has dropped below the handle when contacting the ball, THEN the batter's safety is in jeopardy.  To explain, dropping the bat head upon contact will most likely cause the ball to deflect backwards, often times straight into the batter's face. I have seen several bunt attempts end up as broken noses and busted teeth.  Obviously, this is a big motivation to learn to do this procedure correctly. 

So, the players "...follow the declarative production rules and try to interpret them into actions" (Anderson, John, 1983). In this cognitive stage of procedural knowledge, they understand fully and even repeat the steps over and over verbally to themselves (Anderson, John, 1983).  Soon, the players move to the associative stage through consistent practice (Anderson, John, 1983).  Finally, the players reach the autonomous stage, bunting the ball with precision and ease, seemingly automatically (Anderson, Tom, 2001). 

Upon reviewing this example, one can see how it involves several IF/THEN bundles, which lead the players to the correct action.  For example, the player thinks of several things when learning the bunting procedure: 
 

As Tom Anderson wrote in his article entitled Cognitive Psychology: The Interaction of Memory Structures and Cognitive Strategies, "Procedural knowledge is thought to be stored in, so-called, IF-THEN bundles..." (Anderson, Tom, 2001).  He
continues, saying that with practice, a procedure "...will usually become smoother, faster, error-free and more elaborate (Anderson, Tom, 2001).   Promises - Promises!  Well, I guess he did say "usually".  I do agree with him, but as a softball coach, I wish the "error-free" idea worked 100% of the time for my team! 

REFERENCES 

Anderson, John.  "Procedural Learning." The Architecture of Cognition. (1983). Retrieved on  October 16, 2001 from the World Wide Web.  <http://www.corpus-delicti.com/eco/references/anderson_procedural.html >.

Anderson, Tom.  Cognitive Psychology: The Interaction of Memory Structures and Cognitive Strategies.  Retrieved on October 16, 2001 from the World Wide Web.<http://courseinfo.cet.uiuc.edu:80/bin/com...T&render_type=
DEFAULT&content_id=45216_1> .

Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw, and Royce R. Ronning.  (1999). Cognitive Psychology  and Instruction. Third Edition.  Columbus: Prentice-Hall. 

Nickols, Fred.  The Knowledge in Knowledge Management (KM).  Retrieved on October 16,  2001 from the World Wide Web. <http://home.att.net/~nickols/Knowledge_in_KM.htm>. 

I have been a believer in mnemonics for a very long time.  I feel they help students remember basic facts about different things.  They are an important part of instruction for many professionals. 

My personal experiences with mnemonics date back to my childhood.  My Saturday mornings where filled with catchy tunes, written by very creative people, simply to help me to remember some basic academic information. 

Seriously, is there anyone out there who does not remember School House Rock?   Remember - "Conjunction Junction, what's your function?  Hookin' up phrases and words and clauses."  How about this one:  "Zero, my hero, how wonderful you are!"  OR - "I'm just a bill, and I'm only a bill; and I'm sittin' here on Capitol Hill . . . . "  I know that the only way I remembered (and still remember) the Preamble to the Constitution of the United States is because of the catchy way the School House Rock character sang it. 

School House Rock contributed greatly to the education of countless children.  The producers of this program used music and rhymes to help kids remember important language, math, and social studies rules and information.  Without these programs, I may have had more trouble remembering  some of the basic concepts of certain academic areas. 

Another big influence on my education as a child was my Catholic school experience.  Let's just say that it was in our "best interests" if we learned the multiplication table.  I, however, was not very good with numbers (I am an English teacher; I do words, not numbers!).  Anyway, I discovered a way to remember the table.  Take, for instance, multiplying by 9.  I realized that if the numbers 1 through 9 were each multiplied by 9, the numbers of each answer would add up to 9.  For example, 2 x 9 = 18. 
Looking at the numbers that make up 18, 1 and 8, one will notice they add up to 9.  It works that way all the way to 9 x 9 = 81 (8 + 1 = 9).  That trick helps me out even now. 

Looking at mnemonics from the other side of the desk now, I still believe in its power to help students remember certain things.  Interestingly, there are several different types available.  Some I have found useful; some seem ridiculous to me.  While I am strongly in favor of using mnemonic devices, I feel the peg method, the method of loci, and the link method (Bruning, et al, 1999) are more trouble than they are worth.  It seems as though in each of these methods, one must memorize an extensive method in order to use it to memorize the needed information.  That seems like more work than is necessary. 

On the contrary, I have used some other mnemonic techniques with positive results.  For example, my English IIIA students learn successful listening strategies for the workplace by memorizing the acronym HEAR, which stands for Helpfulness, Empathy, Attentiveness, and Responsiveness (Albert, 1996).  This is an example of the first-letter method (Bruning, et al, 1999). 

I also use rhymes (Bruning, et al, 1999) to help my softball players remember different things.  For special games, the junior high players like to wear two different colors of socks.  So there will not be any confusion, we say, "White on right."  This
helps the players remember to put the white sock on the right foot and the black sock on the left foot.  Another rhyme I use is the same as the one most teachers use:  "i before e except after c..." (Bruning, et al, 1999).  This helps students with spelling. 

Speaking of spelling, there are numerous sayings that help people remember how to spell certain words.  For now, two such sayings come to mind.  The first one helps students spell the word arithmetic: "A Rat In Tommy's House Might Eat Tommy's
Ice Cream."  The other one helps with the word together:  "to get her".  These are a variation of the story types of mnemonic devices. 

Convinced that these devices work, I turned to my colleagues to get their thoughts on this subject. Diann Bomer, a counselor who is a former English teacher and first grade teacher, sang the praises of mnemonics.  She said, "As a counselor, I feel they (mnemonic devices) are an excellent way to remember information.  Anything that can help kids remember is worth the trouble of teaching or developing"  (Bomer interview, 2001). 

Mrs. Bomer then related several "tricks" she used when teaching.  She said that her first grade students had trouble spelling the word policy correctly; they always wanted to put an e in the word:  polecy.   So, she told them, "The POLE is ICY so the E slipped off."  She also showed me a "trick" that she taught to her students to help them remember how many days each month contains.  Obviously, we have all heard, "Thirty days has September ... " (Bruning, et al, 1999).  However, Mrs. Bomer taught it a certain way.  Here is the procedure: 

Starting with the pointer finger's knuckle, touch each knuckle and each space between the knuckles while saying the names of the months in order.  If done correctly, each knuckle represents a month that has 31 days in it, and each space represents a month that has 30 or less days in it. (Bomer interview, 2001)

Continuing, Roger Anderson, a social studies teacher, said he feels mnemonic devices are valuable to the students.  He tries to develop different ones to help his students remember the long list of American presidents.  He said, "Some students like to sing the presidents' names to the tune of Yankee Doodle" (Anderson interview, 2001).   A second "trick" he tells the students is to say a president's name every time they take a step.  Mr. Anderson believes, "It gives them sort of a rhythm that helps them remember" (Anderson interview, 20001). 

Finally, I turned to the students themselves.  Upon asking them about this subject, many eyes lit up and several students smiled as they remembered the sayings that have helped them remember things in the past.  Seriously, they shot out so many that I could not keep up with them.  Some of their sayings are in the chart below: 
 
 

REFERENCES 

Albert, Margaret C.  Communication 2000. Module 6.  Cincinnati: South-Western, 1996. 

Anderson, Roger. Personal Interview.  October 17, 2001. 

Bomer, Diann.  Personal Interview.  October 17, 2001. 

Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw, and Royce R. Ronning.  (1999). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Third Edition.  Columbus: Prentice-Hall. 

Students at Cumberland High School.  Cumberland District #77. Class Discussion. October 17,  2001.

Reading is an essential part of life.  "Simply put, language is pragmatic in that it fulfills vital human needs and affects every aspect of our lives" (Bruning et al, 1999).  It is necessary in business, social, and personal realms throughout the world.  Consequently, it is important to become proficient in this skill no matter in what language or for what reason. 

Becoming proficient, however, is more than just combining letters into words and then joining those words to create sentences.  In fact, the ability to do that is worthless if meaning is not attached to those words and sentences.  As mentioned in the  book Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, "...reading is a constructive process aimed at comprehension" (Bruning et al, 1999).  Whether one is reading books, newspapers, magazines, letters, memos, or web texts, comprehension is imperative. 

In the information to follow, three web pages have been analyzed with reading comprehension in mind.  These web pages are from the Illinois State Board of Education (ISBE), the Journal Gazette/Times Courier, and the Women's National Basketball
Association (WNBA).  I have also  monitored my personal comprehension of each site. 

Upon logging on to these web sites, with the help of my instructor's questions, I started thinking metacognitively, trying to answer the following questions which he posed: 
 
 

The answers to these and several other questions, more site-specific, are discussed within this paper. 

The Illinois State Board of Education's web site is located at www.isbe.state.il.us . It is an excellent site with several helpful links for teachers and administrators.  Its purpose is to inform and to educate its readers. 

Upon logging on, I found my eyes wandering trying to find something that looked familiar to me.  During my search, I noticed my eyes fixating on some text signals like the bold red text used for the different links provided.  I noticed fixation came and went as I found things I could use and skipped things that meant little or nothing to me. 

As for the method used for processing, I feel most web sites are an integration between data-driven and schema-driven processing.  While most web pages have graphics, this web page is text-dominated, having very few graphics to aid in the reader's comprehension.  However, the few graphics that were present did relate to the written words (links) near them.  For example, a picture of the Capitol building was connected with the words Federal Legislation while a graphic of a rolled newspaper was used in correlation with the New and Events link. This made it easier to comprehend. 

As I scanned the site, some questions came to mind. What part of this site can I use?  Can I apply what I find here to my classes?  How can I use it in the future?  What information on this site looks familiar? 

I soon found that there are several links that I can use, including School Safety, Learning Technologies, White House Summit on Early Childhood Cognitive Development, and a web site address dealing with hate and violence.  I also found that I could gain ideas on how to help kids deal with the state of the world's stability after the events of September 11, 2001.  These ideas can be found at nccic.org/helpkids.html and can be implemented immediately in my class discussions.  For future use, I noticed a link to different grants that are available to teachers and districts. 

As for what looked familiar to me, the main aspect that appealed to my prior knowledge was that of web pages in general.  To explain, most web pages follow a certain pattern. For example, links are on the left while the main information is printed in the center of the page.  Other organizational techniques used by the author to help the reader comprehend the web text were the uses of headlines and boldface print.  Furthermore, the site had a normal right-to-left reading pattern; however, it did not require the normal pattern of top-to-bottom reading in order to be able to use it. 

To continue analyzing comprehending web texts, I logged on to a web site that was different than the Illinois State Board of Education web site.  This site was that of a newspaper, the Journal Gazette/Times Courier. 

When this page appeared, I first noticed the boldfaced state football scores at the right.  Next, my eyes fixated on the pictures in the center of the page.  As I scrolled down, my eyes stayed primarily in the center where the headline events were pictured and linked to the corresponding stories.  Occasionally, my eyes wandered to the right column of the page where the human interest stories were.  This site has several pictures and graphics that encourage the reader to continue reading. 

There are several organizational schemata that show up throughout this site.  As in the printed version, this online newspaper is set up in columns.  When reading this page, I saw the boldface text at the right then scrolled down, reading the center information.  After that, I returned to the top and began scrolling down again, reading the right column.  Finally, I again returned to the top and once again scrolled down, focusing on the left column. 

Metacognitively speaking, I feel I followed the center-right-left pattern because that was the intent of the author and the regular pattern of any web page.  For example, many web pages are set up with the main information (main idea of the site) in the center, the secondary or interest articles or activities on the right side, and links or navigation information on the left. 

While exploring this page, I realized that the different reporters helped to trigger my background knowledge through the headlines that were presented.  For instance, the article title "Terrorists Might Hit Us in the Sweet Tooth Next" triggered several thoughts for me.  First, it made me predict that the story was about Halloween.  Next, I thought of all the horrible things that terrorist do.  Finally, I came to the conclusion that the story was probably about how the terrorist might decide to poison the candy that will be distributed to the nation's children on Halloween. 

The author also uses pictures to help the readers comprehend the words of the headings next to the pictures.  These titles are then linked to the corresponding stories.  Another example of this is the graphic cartoon of a girl which is used to help assist the visitor with reading the link title 4 Kids. Throughout this site each graphic matches the words well enough for the readers to get the gist of each link and to be led to reading the words of each title. 

As with the Illinois State Board of Education's page, when I explored this site, I formed several questions.  Initially, these were content-oriented questions like Are the sports scores on this page? (A: Yes, both as highlighted, quick scores to the right and as a link to the stories on the left.) OR Where is the weather report? (A: There is a link on the left.)  Then, I asked questions like Do they have a special section for teachers and/or students? (A: Yes, lesson ideas, among other things,  are sent after submitting some information.)  Finally, I found myself thinking about the reading process and asking deeper questions like Why am I reading the columns from center to left and finally to the right column? ((A:  Most web pages are set up with the main idea in the middle, interesting or addition information at the right, and navigation tools on the left.) 

After exploring an educational site (ISBE) and an informative site (a newspaper, Journal Gazette/Times Courier) I decided to visit an entertaining/commercial site to see if there were any differences in designs.  So, as I connected to www.wnba.com (Women's National Basketball Association), I immediately recognized the differences.  The author/designer of this site chose a different way to attract readers.  Unlike the sites analyzed earlier, this site employed bright colors, graphics and pictures in order to entertain the reader and sell him/her something. 

As I scanned this page, I tried to think about where my eyes were focusing.  Initially, they fixated on the team emblems at the top of the page.  After quite some time, my eyes moved to the center of the page where I saw more graphics and some text, written in all capital letters.  This site had a screen full of graphics and text that worked well together.  Consequently, my eyes wandered from graphics to text - from the center (the most recent focus of the league), to the right (an interesting trivia game), and to the left (helpful links).  I found that I stayed on the beginning screen longer than the other sites because it was packed with interesting information. 

The author of this page used several things to help the visitor comprehend the page.  For example, looking at the graphics triggered my background knowledge in several ways.  For example, since I am a coach, I tend to think about schedules, rosters,
and statistics.  Therefore, when I placed the mouse arrow over each emblem and notice each was a link, I inferred that I could retrieve each team's homepage, leading to its schedule, roster, and statistics by clicking on its emblem. 

Other things that the author did to help retrieve background knowledge was to put text signals and clues with the graphics.  For example, in the center of the screen, there was a picture of a basketball with a pink ribbon on it.  Immediately, I knew the text would relate something to do with breast cancer.  Successfully, the author activated my background knowledge about breast cancer.  Like other authors, whether in hard text or web text, this author also uses headings and boldface text as reading strategies to help the visitors comprehend the site. 

The site's schema was similar to most web sites.  There were lots of graphics placed by related text.  The most current information was placed in the center while special interest information was at the right, leaving links to the left.  With this format, it is not mandatory to read top to bottom to get the gist of the site.  There are several separate sections that can be read independently of each other. As with the other web sites mentioned earlier, I feel this one, too, is an integration between data-driven and schema-driven processing. 

Again, as with the others, certain questions came to mind while visiting this site,  In contrast with the others, though, this time, there were no deeper questions to ponder.  I simply wanted to know certain things like Can I get tickets from this page? (A: Yes, there is a link to do just that.) Can I buy things here? (A: Yes, there is a link to the WNBA Store.)  Finally, Where are the teams' statistics? (A: On their individual homepages which are linked to the league's homepage.)  My conclusion:  It's a site with entertainment and business as its purpose; it is not meant to provoke deep thinking! 

Metacognitively speaking, there were many observations which were made during my research.   While reading about fixations, I found myself thinking about how I was actually reading.  Was I  fixating? Did I "...perform about three fixations per second (Bruning et al, 1999)?  In searching  for the answers, I found that, in general, I tend to fixate first on graphics and colors and read the  words later.  Is this because I am more of a sight reader than I once believed?  At one time I  believed that I was a phonetic reader only.  I still believe that was true when I was younger and just  learning to read.  However, now that I have much more background knowledge, I feel I am allowing whole language to enter into my process of comprehension. 

Continuing, I learned other things as well.  For instance, I found that after I generated some questions, I read the text for the answers to those questions and committed most of those answers to my long-term memory. 

I also learned some things about schemata.  It became obvious to me that web pages are full of schema activation.  For example, they set up schemata that "...(guide) the way readers allocate their attention to different parts of reading passages (like on the newspaper web site), (allow) readers to make inferences about the text (like the ISBE links to the hate and violence web page), and (facilitate) organized searches of memory (like the WNBA trivia game on the right side of that homepage)" (Bruning et al, 1999).  This is very important because "...text comprehension depends heavily on learner inferences" (Bruning et al, 1999) and predictions. 

Before researching this topic and analyzing the web pages, I would have chosen phonics as the only way people could logically read the words in front of them.  I still believe this; however, I feel, now, that sight words, or whole language, have a place in reading comprehension.  Therefore, I believe that the best way to teach reading comprehension is to integrated data-driven processing with schema-driven processing.  I feel web pages, in general, are excellent examples of this.  According to Bruning et al, pre-readers understand that words on a page or screen "say" something.  So, in order to "read" what those words say, young children often memorize the look of the word or words.  An example of this is their recognition of product names like Barbie or Hot Wheels (Bruning et al, 1999).  However, because of the enormous amount of words available, obviously, it soon becomes impossible to continue  reading in this manner.  Soon, it becomes necessary to start associating specific sounds with specific letters or letter combinations (Bruning et al, 1999). 

The nature of web texts lends itself to the integration of these two philosophies of teaching reading comprehension.  Personally, I feel there is no relevancy in choosing one over the other when reading web texts.  Graphics help young readers navigate new technology while text helps to explain the main idea with more explicit details.  It is obvious, then, that both have a viable purpose and value to web pages.  Therefore, they both should be available to the reader. 

Just and Carpenter believe that "Reading comprehension begins at the first fixation" (Bruning et al, 1999).  After thinking about this while reading web texts, I agree with them.  Once seen, "...visual stimuli enter the iconic store" (Bruning et al, 1999). After visual stimulus occurs, integration with the text begins, and that leads to reading comprehension (Bruning et al, 1999). 

Retrieval from the iconic store does not always come in a "normal" manner (Bruning et al, 1999).  A normal retrieval supports a left-to-right pattern as well as a top-to-bottom reading pattern.  For web pages it is not necessary to read in this fashion in order for comprehension to take place.  A reader can jump from link to link and return to the homepage without losing much, if anything, in the process. 

In addition, reading web text and regular text can be very similar because several of the same reading strategies can be used to increase comprehension.  As seen earlier, an author can use schema activation in web text just as easily as in regular text.  For example, in both, a reader will see text signals like boldfacing, charts, headings, and illustrations.  Obviously, these signals help with comprehension because they trigger background knowledge. 

In closing, reading comprehension can be achieved using several different techniques.  It is logical to think that data-driven and schema-driven processing can work best when integrated.  I have found this to be true by monitoring my own cognition when
reading as well as by researching this topic. 

REFERENCES 

Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw, and Royce R. Ronning.  (1999). Cognitive Psychology  and Instruction. Third Edition.  Columbus: Prentice-Hall. 

Illinois State Board of Education Web Site.  Retrieved from the World Wide Web on  October 26, 2001. <www.isbe.state.il.us>. 

Journal Gazette/Times Courier Web Site.  Retrieved from the World Wide Web on  October 26, 2001. <www.jg-tc.com>. 

Women's National Basketball Association Web Site. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on  October 26, 2001. <www.wnba.com>. 

According to Bruning et al, metamemory is the “... Knowledge about the contents and functioning of one's memory” (1999).  In other words, metamemory is realizing how one's own memory works.  Also, important is the concept of metacognition.  This idea is explained as the “Knowledge about cognition; knowledge used to regulate thinking and learning” (Bruning et al, 1999) or “...thinking about thinking” (Bruning et al, qtd. in Baker, 2001).

As one can see, explaining metamemory and metacognition is the easy part.  Understanding and applying the knowledge about these concepts can sometimes be difficult and confusing.  The same is true when thinking about the notion of metawriting.  However, everything has its own process.  Composition, as anything else, has a process and a form that helps to organize one's thoughts.  Learning this process will enable a writer to quickly and easily create a thoughtful, well-developed composition.

There are several roads that lead to the same destination, which is an organized piece of written work.  For example, the Flower and Hayes model will point a writer in the correct direction.  To explain, the Flower and Hayes model works from the premise that successful composition can be divided into three sections: task environment, long-term memory, and working memory (Bruning et al, 1999).

Briefly, the task environment includes two important elements: the writing assignment and external storage.  First, the writing assignment is self-explanatory.  It is “...the written task faced by the writer” (Bruning et al, 1999).  Obviously, it consists of the description of the topic. Normally, the intended audience – like a teacher, the judges of a contest, or the writer’s peers – is described in the assignment also.  Finally, the writing assignment often includes motivation - like grades or money for winning a contest - to the writer (Bruning et al, 1999).

As mentioned previously, not only does the task environment provide the writing assignment, but it also consists of the external storage compiled by the writer.  External storage is “...the writing a writer produces and the external aids she or he may use” (Bruning et al, 1999).  In other words, things like note cards, outlines, rough drafts, bibliographies, and evaluations of rough drafts are all considered external storage (Bruning et al, 1999).  This external storage can be used several ways.  The writer proofreads the material.  Then, the material can be read and judged by others.  Finally, the writer can use the information compiled from all sources to revise the original document.  This usually helps increase the quality of work.
Following the Flower and Hayes model, long-term memory is also employed.  Writers use long-term memory in two important ways:  “...knowledge about content (knowing about the topic itself) and knowledge about discourse processes (e.g. knowledge about audiences, metalinguistic knowledge about the structures of different writing genres)” (Bruning et al, 1999).  To explain, a writer does his/her best work when he/she has some kind of background knowledge on the chosen topic.  Along with knowing the topic well, the writer should also have a basic knowledge of different types of styles and organization of compositions as well as a solid idea of what the assignment calls for.  According to Bruning et al, “No matter how well developed a writer’s composing abilities are, the ultimate quality of writing produced depends on the writer’s ability to apply both content and discourse knowledge to a particular writing task”  (1999).  Normally, content knowledge is found through researching the topic.  Discourse knowledge, on the other hand, comes from experience, practice, and given assignments (Bruning et al, 1999).

Finally, working memory is also used while composing a written piece of material.  Working memory consists of planning, translating, and reviewing. The first stage, the planning stage, consists of goal setting (reasons for composing), generating (researching, finding, and gathering material) and organizing (outlining, grouping) (Bruning et al, 1999).  Next, according to Bruning et al,  “Translating involves transforming one’s ideas into written text” (1999).  This is when the writer writes the essay (or text) using all ideas compiled during the planning stage (Bruning et al, 1999).  To continue, reviewing “...involves reexamination of what has been written and a comparison of this product with the writer’s internal standards for acceptable writing” (Bruning et al, 1999).  Simply stated, reviewing is divided into two parts:  evaluating and revising.  In the evaluating stage, the writer proofreads the written material and makes educated judgments as to its quality.  Then, he/she moves into the revising stage and fixes any mistakes in order to improve the composition (Bruning et al, 1999).

While there are definite steps to follow when writing a composition, these steps are not necessarily linear.  Bruning et al says it well:  “What is written is linear, but the processes of writing are not” (1999).  This simply means that while the actual words on paper read left-to-right, one right after another, the process of putting those words on paper in a logical, comprehensible manner, sometimes allows the writer to bounce from step to step, revisiting previous steps along the way (Bruning et al, 1999).  That nonlinear process is needed because a composition is always a work in progress; it can always be reviewed and revised, adding more content knowledge and applying better discourse.
 
 

Metawriting is thinking about the process of writing. It is using background knowledge and schema to create new compositions.

When I begin to teach the composition unit, I always stress using background knowledge to my students.  Agreeing with Bruning et al and the Flower and Hayes model, I tell the students that their papers should convey what they want to say about the given subject.  This helps the students internalize the assignment more (Bruning et al, 1999; Personal Experience).  They can do research to increase their background knowledge as well.  Specific, in-depth content always helps the quality of compositions.

As mentioned, schema is important when working on a quality composition.  In my classes, I teach a certain step-by-step process (brainstorming, grouping, outlining, rough copy, revision, final copy) that the students use to help them travel from beginning to end.  However, like mentioned in the Flower and Hayes model, the writing process while it is a process, not exactly linear (Bruning et al, 1999).

Good results begin with good instructions and motivation.  Bruning et al mention in the book Cognitive Psychology and Instruction that poor instructions lead to poor performance and outcomes (1999).   Each writing assignment should have clear instructions, which reveal the audience, the topic, and the purpose, and which provide stimulating motivation for the students.  To illustrate this, I will explain a writing assignment I use with my junior English classes.

Every quarter, my students are required to write a newspaper article for The Global Gazette, an on-line international newsletter (<http://students.ed.uiuc.edu/catey/ newsletterhp.html#newsletterhp>), which I designed and implemented during the summer of 2001.  It is a newsletter, which is written by students – for students.  Upon logging on, the students can navigate through the newsletter to find the details of the assignment.  By pointing and clicking, the students can find out how to submit an article, the publication guidelines, the article deadlines, and article ideas.  They can also view the news articles from the previous editions, which they could use as examples or “idea generators” (Bruning et al, 1999). 

As stated, the audience should always be kept in mind while writing any composition.  In this assignment the students write mainly for other students.  Of course, it is an English assignment so they must keep the teacher in mind.  However, the main audience is their peers.  What is unique about this assignment, though, is that the audience is “real”.  In other words, the students are not simply writing for a teacher and a grade, they are also going to be published for the whole world to see!  This makes it an exciting assignment.

Along with keeping the audience and topic in mind, a good writer fully understands the purpose of his/her composition.  For this particular assignment, the purpose is to inform, to entertain, or to persuade, depending upon the chosen topic and the angle at which the writer sees the topic.  Once the purpose is recognized, it is important to maintain it throughout the article.

Motivation is a key component when beginning a writing assignment.  I have found that students are highly motivated to complete the assignment of writing an article for The Global Gazette.  This is because they recognize that the outside world will be reading their articles.  They are excited to know that they will be published and that other high school students as well as anyone visiting the site can read their work.  Knowing this makes them internalize the assignment more, which, in turn, results in a better article. 

After recognizing the audience, topic, and purpose and providing the proper motivation, the actual writing of the text begins.  To aid the students, we always complete a “class” paper before they write one on their own.  Modeling allows them not only to see the process but also to experience how others might arrive at different ideas.  This, then, increases their background knowledge as well as their knowledge of discourse processes. 

The process, as I teach it, starts with what I call brainstorming while the Flower and Hayes model depicts this as “idea gathering” (Bruning et al, 1999). Whatever the term that is used, the results are the same – a list of ideas pertaining to the topic is compiled and available for use.  The students are required to write this list (as well as all the other steps in the writing process) in their notebooks because I feel it is important to use every sense possible when trying to learn something.

While we brainstorm and put the results on the board, I ask the students to try to remember the assignment (the task environment) (Bruning et al, 1999).  Naturally, we stick to the rules of brainstorming.  These are 1) no answer is incorrect unless it is purposely way off the topic; and 2) no one is allowed to criticize an idea that is on topic.

After the students have exhausted their ideas (for the moment) through brainstorming, the next step in my lesson is to group those ideas.  Taking cues from the students, I write headings of groups on the board, and we analyze each idea in the brainstorming list, putting each into a group or category.  Often, this is when we revisit the brainstorming stage and list a few more ideas under each category, proving that the writing process is not linear (Bruning et al, 1999).

When the grouping stage is temporarily completed, we move on to the organization stage.  There are several organizational tools that can be used.  Some of these are outlines, clusters, and webs.  For this particular assignment, we would use a formal outline for organization.  At this point, I place a sample blank outline on the board, so, as a class, we can complete it.  Soon, the students begin to realize that the group headings become the main entries in the outline while the ideas listed under those headings become the outline’s sub-entries.  During this step of the writing process, students realize that they can revisit the first two steps, adding ideas as they go.

Once we complete a working outline, we begin putting the ideas into sentences and paragraphs.  This is what Flower and Hays call transferring, and I call simply writing the rough copy.  This is a great learning experience for the students because they get a chance to see how their peers put ideas into sensible and often times creative sentences and paragraphs. This way, students learn from each other and again increase their background and discourse knowledge.  During this stage, after we write a couple of paragraphs together, they also get a chance to try to write a paragraph or two on their own.  This way, they try out their skills in a relatively non-threatening way.

Once they complete their own paragraphs, they move to the proofreading stage of composition.  There are several ways to accomplish this stage.  Most of the time, I have the students begin this step by completing a proofreading checklist that reminds them of certain composition and/or mechanical skills.  Next, they complete a self-evaluation worksheet that asks several questions, regarding the techniques used.

Finally, students pick one or more partners to proofread their compositions.  These partners will read, react, and give ideas, both verbal and written (on peer evaluation worksheets), of improvement to the writer (Bruning et al, 1999).  As Bruning et al comments, “Talking with peers helps students consider different perspectives more clearly formulate their ideas, and consider audiences for their writing” (Bruning et al, 1999).  This part is especially helpful to the writer.  I agree with Bruning et al when it is said that peer editing is successful.   One reason this is true is because the audience becomes real.  Also, they receive a timely response.  Sometimes teachers, due to the amount of papers to grade, cannot respond as quickly as needed to promote the best learning experience.  However, peer editing gives “...near-immediate feedback” (Bruning et al, 1999) to the writer.  Finally, if they learn to edit well, then they are learning to write better as well.  If they can notice the mistakes that others make, they are more likely to recognize their own (Bruning et al, 1999; Personal Experience).  As long as it is stressed that all writing can and probably should be revised, there really should not be any problems with peer editing.

Once the students have received ideas through self and peer editing, revision begins.  During this stage, students revisit all the previous stages of the writing process, making the necessary changes.  This, then, leads directly into writing the final copy of their composition.  However, before they turn it in, most students will return briefly to the editing stage, having someone read over it once more, looking for mistakes that may have been missed along the way.  Since the students often times do this on their own, it proves that they have learned the process and have internalized the assignment, which is crucial to producing the best work possible.

While creating this paper, I began thinking about writing (metawriting).  I realized that my format for teaching composition reflects that of the Flower and Hayes model discussed in Bruning et al’s book Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.  What was more telling to me, though,  was that not only do I teach a similar format, but I also follow that format when I write a composition myself.  For example, I keep the task environment in mind.  I study the writing assignment and continually keep the audience, topic, and purpose in mind.  Continuing, I research to increase my external storage of material.  I write note cards, outlines, rough copies, and bibliographies just as is suggested by the Flower and Hayes model as well as what I teach my students.   I then use my background knowledge and knowledge about discourse processes to improve the content and organization.  I then use the same editing techniques as those I teach to my students.

However, what interests me at this point is the fact that I really did not realize I was following the process until this composition was nearly half done.  To me, this proves the theory that the more someone performs a task or a skill, the more automatic it becomes.  Consequently, practicing the process of writing is a sure route to making it become more easily performed.

With all this in mind, the bottom line remains in the fact that the purpose of all compositions is to communicate an idea to an audience of some kind.  Because of this, “...writing isn’t a secret process but an interaction between the audience and the author” (Baker, 2001).  So, in order to engage the audience, the writer must be seen as credible.  By writing about what he or she knows about, the writer gains credibility.  When that happens, communication is reached, and the composition is a success.
 

REFERENCES:

Baker, Kim.  Retrieved from the World Wide Web on November 6, 2001.  <http://courseinfo.cet.uiuc.edu:80/bin/
common/course.pl?course_id=_1519_1&frame=top>.

Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw, and Royce R. Ronning.  (1999). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Third Edition.  Columbus: Prentice-Hall. 

Personal Experience. 1995-2001. Cumberland District #77.

From time to time, teachers are called upon to evaluate textbooks in their content area.  When doing this, there are three main areas to consider.  These three areas are the content, the format. and the teacher's material.  The importance of the content is obvious.  However, the importance of the format and the supplemental material are sometimes overlooked. 

To begin, the content of a textbook is imperative.  When evaluating the content of a textbook, one must keep several things in mind.  Obviously, it must cover the major sections of the area being taught, in my case - English.  Specifically, this would include concepts such as the parts of speech, composition, public speaking,  research techniques, and literature.

The evaluator must check the content for accuracy and make sure the information is updated ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001; Personal Experience).  So, if I were to evaluate a composition book, I would check to see if both the MLA and the APA style were covered in the research paper chapter.

Other concepts within the area of content must be checked as well.  For instance, the evaluator would check the readability of the textbook.  No matter how much praise a book may receive, if it is written above the heads of the students, it will not service them well.  Also, it is important to evaluate how the directions are written throughout the chapters.  It is imperative that these are clear, concise, and able to be understood ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001; Personal Experience).

While these ideas are somewhat obvious, there are others that sometimes are overlooked due to lack of time or, possibly, carelessness.  Being politically correct is a big concern in today's world, so it should not be overlooked.  With this in mind, textbook authors should not exclude any groups when writing explanations, exercises, and activities. Therefore, "Subject matter...(should cover) a spectrum of accomplishments featuring all sexes, races, and physical conditions" ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001).  There should not be any stereotyping like depicting women as "homemakers" and men as the "bread winners."  On the contrary, women should be shown in roles of authority like mayors or chief executive officers of major corporations, but should not be depicted this way any more so than men are.  By the same token, men should be shown "...as nurturing and peaceful" ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001), just as often as women are.  Furthermore, minorities should be depicted in several different ways such as an "... Hispanic attorney, (a) black female surgeon, (a) disabled chemist or (a) blind parent" ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001). 

Finally, experts say a good textbook "...does not use words referring to one group, at the expense of another group, or use words to convey prejudicial (can be positive or negative) meanings" ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001).  To explain, the exercises, for example, should not just use masculine pronouns (he, him, etc.) but should also include feminine ones (she, her, etc.) ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001).  Another example of prejudicial language may be the use of "...terms that influence the reader's attitude, such as 'massacre and savage' for American Indians, and 'battle and soldiers' for whites..." ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001).  More examples include when exercises convey things like "...women were 'given' the vote (or) 'crippled' rather than 'with disability'" ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001). Being politically correct assures that students from every ethnic background and gender will feel comfortable reading the information within the textbook and will not feel "...estranged or ignored" ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001).

When evaluating textbooks, it is important to look closely at the format.  In doing this, the evaluator might ask the following questions:

• Do the lessons have an adequate amount of information within them?
• Is the material organized and easy to follow?
• Are the illustrations and charts relevant to the sections in which they are placed?
• Are the illustrations appealing, sparking the interest of the reader?
• Are the font sizes and types appropriate throughout the lessons? ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001; Personal Experience).

• What reading comprehension strategies are employed? (determining importance; summarizing information; drawing inferences; generating questions, and monitoring comprehension)
• What type of text signals are used? (numbers, lists, set of steps, italics, boldface print, headings, preview sentences, and/or recall sentences) (Bruning, et al, 1999).

If the above concerns are satisfied, there is one more area at which an evaluator might look.  This area includes the amount and quality of the supplemental material supplied by the textbook company.  In order to keep the students' interest, there must be several different activities that will reach all types of students.  This material should also include different types of tests in order to assess what the students have learned.  Finally, it is a big advantage to the classroom teacher if these materials are easy to use ("Textbook Evaluation Form", 2001; Personal Experience).  If the supplemental material is useful, the teacher will have more time to spend on the presentation of the individual lessons.

If done correctly,  textbook evaluation takes quite a bit of time.  Although this is true, it is important that textbook evaluation and selection be taken very seriously.  If it is not, the students' education will suffer.

REFERENCES:

Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw, and Royce R. Ronning.  (1999). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Third Edition.  Columbus: Prentice-Hall. 

Personal Experience. 1995-2001. Cumberland District #77.

Textbook Evaluation Form.  (N.d.). 10 Dec. 2001 < http://www.mat-su.k12.ak.us/INS/Publicat/curhndbk/txbkevlf.html>.

             In discussing classroom discipline, William Glasser's model will nearly always enter the conversation.  His ideas of non coercive discipline and class meetings are well-known in the field of education.  However, do these ideas work in real-life situations? 
Some teachers have the attitude that his ideas are good in theory but not in practice. However, many more feel Glasser's model is the best thing to happen to classrooms.

             In order to form an opinion on the usefulness of the Glasser model, one must first understand how it works.  Knowing Glasser's opinions on the focus of education, discipline, and styles of teaching would be the first step in understanding his model.

             With that in mind, the first step is to understand what he feels should be the focus of every teacher and every educational institution:  the student (Anderson, 2001).  That stands to reason because without the students, there would not be any education going on!  Unfortunately, he feels, students do not put forth any real effort to educate themselves, and, in fact, do not care if they learn or not.  According to Charles, Glasser feels, "... students are quite satisfied to do low quality work or even no work..."  (Charles, 1999).

             To fix this, Glasser feels teachers should provide a curriculum that meets the basic needs of the students.  These needs are survival, belonging, power, fun, and freedom (Charles, 1999).  So, if teachers can convince the students that they can use the skills taught through the curriculum, students will be more motivated to learn.  Simply put, Glasser states that if there is a quality curriculum in place, the students will "...learn useful information well" (Charles, 1999).

             Glasser believes that a problem of boredom exists in most students today.  To fix this problem, he feels, "Quality schoolwork and self-evaluation (of quality) by students must replace the fragmented and boring requirements on which students are typically tested and evaluated" (Charles, 1999).  Interestingly, teachers and students agree on one thing:  there is a problem of apathy in schools today.  However, as expected the two groups do not see the same reason for the apathy.  For example, the teachers typically say that they are tired of trying to work with apathetic students, stating that kids will not participate in activities and assignments.  Hence, in the teachers' eyes, it is the students' fault.  However, as expected again, the students say that the assignments are boring, not hard, and that is why they do not participate.  Hence, it is the teachers' fault (Charles, 1999).  Either way it is seen, one can see that this situation is bound to lead to problems.

 These attitudes of both the teachers and the students totally contradict what William Glasser feels should happen in the classroom.  Placing blame is counter-productive and will lead to more than just educational problems.  It will also lead to discipline problems.  If the kids are bored, right or wrong, they will find something to entertain themselves.  In his earlier days, Glasser felt that the schools were fine and that it was the students who chose to behave or not.   Now, however, he feels that the curriculum needs to be enhanced to fulfill the students’ psychological needs, to capture their interests (Charles, 1999).  He believes that if students are stimulated to join in on their own, good behavior will win out (Charles, 1999).

Obviously, to enhance the curriculum in order to improve education and student discipline, changes must be made.  Those changes could start with the style in which the students are being taught.  To do this, Glasser states in Charles’s book Building Classroom Discipline that  “Teachers must abandon traditional teaching practices and move toward quality teaching” (1999).  Consequently, they needed to recognize the difference between being a boss teacher and a lead teacher.  For instance, according to Charles, boss teachers do the following things:
 

A big advantage of being a lead teacher rather than a boss teacher is that lead teachers have fewer discipline problems.  This is because their students see them as working for (with) them rather than against them.  Furthermore, the students trust the lead teacher to provide what is needed in a way that interests them.

There are several experts who agree that Glasser’s model is the way to go.  For example, Barbara McEwan is one of these experts.  She uses something called “’Democratic Classrooms'"(Freymuth, 2001).  She, along with V. Jones and L. S. Jones concur that class meetings are a great way to help students improve their problem-solving skills (Freymuth, 2001).  Likewise, Geoff Freymuth writes that Jane Nelson, Lynn Lott, and Stephen Glenn all “...feel it is important to empower the student” (2001), and that is just what class meetings do.

Everyone knows that no matter how good a teacher is, he/she will still have the occasional discipline problem.  With that in mind, Glasser feels it is essential to prepare in advance for this occasion.  This is where Glasser’s idea of class meetings comes into play.  Class meetings are techniques used to help in the day-to-day procedures and discipline of a class of students.  There are “...opportunities for students to help each other solve problems” (Baker, 2001).  Briefly, class meeting consist of different stages.  The first step is to have the class form a circle with their desks or while sitting on the floor.  The main rule in this stage is that ALL students MUST FIT in the circle.  At this point (Stage 2), they share compliments.  There are three ways this can be accomplished.  For instance, the students might say kind words about a classmate.  Another way to contribute in this stage is for a student to report something she, herself, did will, thereby somewhat soliciting the compliments.  Finally, if some students do not want to participate in this stage, they simply pass when it is their turn to speak (Baker, 2001).  It is important to the climate of the meetings that no student feels coerced into participating (Charles, 1999).

Continuing the explanation of class meetings, the next step to creating and maintaining successful class meetings is for the group to make an agenda.  To do this, the “...students write down problems they are having that they would like the class’s help with” (Baker, 20001).  This agenda will be used several times throughout the year.  After the agenda is set, the students start learning good listening and speaking skills.  These skills consist of “...active listening, put-ups (vs. put downs) and body language that indicates interest” (Baker, 2001).

Finally, the most important step is visited.  This is when the students learn and practice problem-solving skills.  First, they revisit the agenda, which was produced in an earlier stage.  Working with this, the group thinks about and expresses solutions to the problems listed on the agenda.  When this is over, the individual student with the problem picks on e of the solutions and tries it for a week. Hopefully, the process then stops because the problem is solved.  However, if the solution did not work, the student then has the option of putting it back on the agenda (Baker, 2001).

Unfortunately, to enjoy the full effect of class meetings, a teacher must afford the time it takes to fully incorporate them into class procedures.  “However, class meetings can be compared to financial investments; the sacrifice made today, will result in tomorrow’s gain” (Baker, 20001).  In other words, class meetings have several long-term benefits.  One huge plus to effectively running class meetings is that, over time, discipline problems on the whole, decrease.  This is because the students learn to trust each other and become “...close and protective” (Baker, 2001).  Another plus is that students learn problem-solving skills and actually become quite good at them.  Therefore, they can normally fix a problem on their own before it becomes a major one.  Consequently, there will not be as many distractions due to discipline.  Along with fewer discipline problems and less distractions, teachers have noticed that the students seldom dispute the consequences of their actions.  This is because, if the groundwork for class meetings has been done correctly, the students, with the guidance of their teacher, have already discussed and agreed upon the consequence for certain actions, whether they are acceptable or unacceptable actions (Charles, 1999; Baker 2001).  Other advantages to class meetings are that students obtain the confidence and responsibility that allows them to remedy most problems that arise.  This allows the teacher more time to assist students with academic concerns.  It also builds the students’ self-esteem, which is always helpful (Baker, 2001).

Upon investigating class meetings, my first reaction was like several other teachers: When will I have the time to do this?  I also felt that it lent itself better to the elementary structure more so than the high school level.  This is because elementary classes are self-contained.  These teachers see only one set of students all day so it is easier for them to find the time to implement the system.  In high school, teachers see five-seven groups of over twenty students each for blocks of 45-55 minutes each.  Consequently, it seems implausible to be able to implement class meetings at the high school level due to the time restraints.  If, however, the meetings could be broken into smaller increments of time, say five to ten minutes a day, it would be more likely to be used at the high school level.

However, another problem arises at the high school level.  Since secondary teachers see five to seven groups of students each day, they could end up with five to seven different sets of rules.  This could be seen as inconsistency in teaching which is hard for administrators, faculty, and parents to understand and support.  That’s why I feel class meetings, in their truest form, would not be as successful at the secondary level as they most probably are at the elementary level.

With that said, I will admit that I have tried a similar concept with my high school softball team.  At the beginning of each season, we make the time to sit down and discuss the goals, rules, and consequences of appropriate and inappropriate actions.  Actually, sometimes the players meet on their own, discuss and record the outcomes of the meeting and then give me a copy of those discussions for approval.  I have found that this works wonders for my relationship with them.  They see me as facilitator, not necessarily their boss.  Because of this procedure, they feel responsible to the team, not just to me, if they disregard a rule.  That gives them a tight bond with each other and a feeling of ownership of the team.  It becomes OUR team not just Coach Catey’s team.  This makes us more successful on and off the field.

Glasser’s ideas have change over the years.  At first, he felt the students simply make good choices or bad choices in regards to behavior.  Now, however, he puts some responsibility on the teachers and the educational system to provide a quality education, while keeping the basic needs of students in mind (Charles, 1999).

 In terms of discipline, Charles writes, “...quality curriculum, quality learning, and quality teaching...all of them...(are) important, if not essential in discipline” (1999).&n